What we know as propaganda uses a constructed language on media to implant ideas in the minds of individuals.  It creates public trends on how susceptible we are to authorities at the individual level.  Unfortunately, the human tendency to trust in an authority is well known, and often exploited. This article will approach propaganda seen during the Chinese Cultural Revolution, in the words of theorist Sheryl Tuttle, as something “epistemically defective or lacking epistemic merit where this criterion not only applies propositions and arguments but also to conceptual schemas (ways of carving up the world) as well as moral precepts.”2

Widespread propaganda played a central role in encouraging youth activism through a variety of techniques during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-1976).   Examples include art, literature, government publications, newspapers, and television.  Propaganda of this era used various techniques to distinguish the just from the opposed.  Some frequently recurring techniques included visually disfiguring and dehumanizing opponents, distorting proportions to make favored groups look larger than their opponents, and giving preferred physical traits such as a muscular build to the favored groups.   Often these stylistic devices are accompanied by blatant practices of propaganda and marginalization of the opposition.  These devices included targeting and intimidating individuals, repeating certain ideas, using depictions of large crowds to encourage the audience to join the ”bandwagon”, emphasizing colors associated with violence, among other tactics.

Propaganda in different and more subtle forms such as omission of information, and use of discriminatory language still plays a central role today, albeit to discourage such extreme levels of activism practiced during the Revolution.

In my later blog posts, I will demonstrate several functions of propaganda that encouraged the youth to criticize important political figures of their time.  I will do this by analyzing a struggle for political power within the 1960’s-70’s Communist Party of China (CPC), as narrated by propaganda posters, and finally I will discuss how subtler propaganda in national history textbooks affects the contemporary public opinion in China, particularly that of youth. The psychological role that propaganda plays in political participation will be the primary focus of this article series.

I interviewed delegates of governmental authority in the classrooms (specifically, high-school history and political education teachers), current high school students, their parents, and the generation that was at least 10 years old at the time of the Revolution to measure the success of such methods of propaganda in engineering public opinion.

First, we need to understand the dynamics that fueled the Cultural Revolution, as well as the true motivations behind it to understand that Mao started the Cultural Revolution to affirm his grasp on the Chinese political scheme.  The “Great Leap Forward” (1958-1961) that Mao Zedong hoped would push China to “surpass Britain and catch America” had left the country in great economic and social devastation.  Mao envisioned measures that would create the communist utopia: communal farms, communal access to the work force, placement of metal ovens within each settlement to encourage local steel production, etc. His scheme, which included a communal land ownership policy, not only failed to produce high quality steel that had any industrial use, but more significantly led to a decrease in harvest production as the steel manufacturing industry consumed all tools that that would otherwise have aided in harvesting.  Consequentially, potentially 40 million civilians1 died in the resulting great famine, yet such apparently unsound methods were maintained for three years. The public was falsely reassured by propaganda posters that depicted fruits larger than humans, as well as abundant produce at farms, and bountiful communal farms and dining.  As the public began to recognize the propagandistic ruse, it was no coincidence that faith in Mao’s guidance declined greatly.  In the aftermath, he resigned from his duty as State Chairman of PRC at 1959, and the party saw a transfer of political power from Mao to reformists such as Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping.

In the aftermath of the Great Leap Forward, the party was clearly divided between the Mao loyalists and the revisionists; the former faction enjoyed Mao’s god-like reputation with the people, and the latter disliked Mao’s poor economic and social leadership, and therefore wanted to impose a more liberal economic model.  With the revisionists slowly gaining more repute, Mao started to see the revisionists and the path the CPC could follow as the primary enemy against the Communist Revolution of China.  As he declared the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, Mao urged young civilians to from armed militias called the “Red Guards” to physically harass his political rivals.  Just as significantly, he urged militia that were guided by his “Little Red Book” — of which individuals were encouraged to memorize and apply to all aspects of their lives — to return to the countryside once his adversaries were eliminated. This delocalization of the militias was not only an attempt to regain the trust and authority he had lost in the rural areas as a result of the Great Leap Forward, but also served to decrease the damage they were doing in the cities by scattering the mobs.

Posters that encouraged Mao’s supporters in the working class to attack the revisionists — such as Liu Shao Qi and Deng Xiaoping — were used in great abundance.  These posters that depicted the revisionists as public enemies were soon found everywhere.  Repeating themes in these posters, such as excessive usage of red in the background, invites the audience to violence.  The armband worn by the proletarian figures mark them as members of the infamous “Red Army,” and show their devotion to Mao.  The big red letters on a white background became the preferred design of posters issued by the state, as well as of those created by the people who hoped to convey the zealous devotion of the people towards Mao; they conveyed their frustration that had grown throughout the last decade.  Significant revisionist figures are targeted and accused with treason as the scapegoats of failed economic policies and the great famine.  Effectively pinpointing names in these propaganda posters gave the public an outlet and target to discharge the built up frustration of poverty and famine, whilst renewing their zealous devotion to Mao.  Use of various tools, such as shovels, painting brushes, pens, and guns, aimed to appeal to all members of the proletariat and to spread the revolutionary spirit to an audience as large as possible.  Indeed, both genders are equally represented in all posters for the same purpose.  Another significant aspect of these posters is that Mao and his “revolutionaries” are portrayed disproportionately bigger than Mao’s political rivals.  This is significant in showing that the proletariat — depicted muscular, and looking down upon their enemies — is much more powerful than their disfigured and significantly smaller enemies.  Portrayals of Mao either as an overarching shadow in the background or in the form of a sun shining above the gazing over the revolutionaries with a satisfied look show Maoist approval and the support of extreme public activism.

These posters derive most of their power from what can be explained in terms of the Social Psychology model — especially the Role Theory in this case — and Ross’s Epistemic Merit model of propaganda.  First, the strong emphasis on the figure of Mao, a widely trusted and revered figure in the eyes of the proletariat of China, exploits the population’s strong desire to follow Mao, their savior and esteemed leader.  Second, these posters bring forward concepts that are not thoroughly understood by the masses, such as communism and capitalism.  The former ignites strong nationalist feelings, and the latter is associated with enemies, and hatred.  Similarly, even though the enemies — Mao’s significant political adversaries — are well defined, the question of why they should be considered enemies is ambiguous at best.  The ambiguity of the concepts that are played upon, in addition to the goals of the movement, thus make these concepts “epistemically defective.”  Similarly, each piece of propaganda has a well-defined “sender” (the Maoist cult in the Chinese government) and a well-defined receiver (the mass of people that adore Mao as a war hero, who collectively hold significant political and physical power).  This being the case, we see how propaganda that is employed almost in a book-like fashion can move masses with tremendous power and speed.

These posters clearly invited the Chinese youth of 1960’s and early 1970’s to actively influence and interfere with the flow of Chinese politics.  Even more significantly, the government actively encouraged extreme youth activism, albeit to cleanse itself from opposition.  In my further blog posts, I will show how the use of propaganda has changed into active discouragement of youth activism.

References:

1. Dikötter, Frank. Mao’s Great Famine: The History of China’s Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62. Walker & Company, 2010. ISBN 0802777686.
2. Kim, Seungkun Stephan. University of Chicago: Theories of Media. Winter 2007. 13 04 2012 <http://csmt.uchicago.edu/glossary2004/propaganda.htm>.
3. Image: “Our cause is just, the just cause has to be victorious!” Chinese Posters, last modified March 1, 2012, http://chineseposters.net/gallery/e16-347.php
4. Image: “The renegade traitor and scab Liu Shaoqi must forever be expelled from the Party!” Chinese Posters, last modified March 1, 2012, http://chineseposters.net/gallery/g2-23.php

Deniz Cem Ozensoy is a first-year student at the University of Chicago majoring in Economics. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

History

In the 1800s, scientists first noticed that the introduction of a virus could diminish a tumor. Recognizing this startling connection, scientists began researching the phenomenon in the early 20^th century [4]. Research stalled, however, when scientists realized that oncolytic viruses were slow to attack tumors and more importantly, had to be injected at the site of the tumor in order to be effective. But despite the setbacks, research in oncolytic viruses has recently spiked, focusing on using a “friendlier” virus to fight cancer [4,5,6].

The Future

Currently, there are three such drugs that have the most potential to treat cancer effectively, Onyx 15, OncoVex, and JX-594. Onyx-015, developed by Onyx Therapeutics is currently undergoing testing to treat cancer and could finally defeat the dreaded disease. It detects the absence of p53, a specific protein that all cancer cells lack, thereby ignoring normal cells. The drug currently targets and destroys half of all major cancer types [7]. However, the drug is ineffective alone and needs to be coupled with chemotherapy for optimal use [8].

Another, possibly more effective, drug currently being developed is OncoVex, developed by BioVex, which was bought by biotechnology giant Amgen for $1 billion [9,10]. Clinically, OncoVex can function by itself [11,12] and does not need to be coupled with other treatments. Additionally, side effects are limited to flu-like symptoms and occasional inflammation [12]. However, the drug is administered through an intra-tumoral injection, so the drug must be injected into the tumor, preventing the drug from successfully treating metastatic tumors that have spread throughout the body [11]. In the meantime, Amgen expects Phase 3 trial results soon, and the Food and Drug Administration will then consider the drug for approval [10].

While Amgen attempts to develop an FDA-approved oncolytic virus, the Ottawa Hospital Research Institute’s Dr. John Bell is working on an oncolytic virus as well [13,14]. Bell’s drug, JX-594, appears to be unique because it takes the best traits of both Onyx-015 and OncoVex. Like Onyx-015, JX-594 seeks out and destroys cancer cells without harming normal cells, so it does not need targeted treatment. Additionally, like the OncoVex, it can function effectively without supplemental chemotherapy [10,15]. The positives of JX-594 include the minimal side effects and excellent efficiency [10,15,16]. Most importantly, this drug requires only a single injection that then fights all of the cancer [10,15]. Bell expects to administer Phase 2 testing specifically directed at liver and colon cancers in around 140 patients across the world [13].

Ethics and Controversy

While the oncolytic virus seems to have a promising future over traditional cancer treatments, there is still a certain amount of danger involved with introducing viruses to the human body. This threat can be especially risky with cancers that suppress the immune system. A study completed by the William Harvey Research Institute shows that the use of un-tested, replicating viruses could jeopardize the human body [17]. Since creating the oncolytic virus requires altering the genes of the virus, it could potentially mutate and introduce a new strain of disease.

Additionally, based on earlier research, oncolytic viruses are known to attack tumors slowly. This was one of the major reasons that research and potential usage of oncolytic viruses stalled in the 20^th century. Considering oncolytic viruses’ slow effect, it would be possible for the cancer cells to evolve and adapt around the viruses, like cases where bacteria have become resistant to antibiotics due to widespread use of antibiotics. This would not only render the treatment useless, but also create a new invincible cancer. Understanding this possibility is important going into clinical testing for most drugs.

In studying oncolytic viruses as a widespread treatment for cancer, it is important to prevent the possibility of a threatening mutation of both the virus and the tumor.

Society and Law

Cancer has a massive impact on society. It affects not only patients but also loved ones. Because cancer is so prevalent, any treatment would have far-reaching effects on society. With conventional treatments, side effects are devastating, ranging from physical sicknesses to psychological impacts even more excruciating than the cancer itself. With an oncolytic virus, patients could avoid suffering the painful and sometimes embarrassing side effects that they encounter today. Patients can avoid unnecessary surgeries that come with their own challenges, including risk of infection, adverse allergic reactions, and rehabilitation. Finally, families won’t have to see their loved ones suffer from the terrible side effects of cancer treatment.

The success of oncolytic viruses depends not only on their clinical backing, but also on the policies and laws that facilitate their continued research. Most of the research in this field has been conducted outside of America (in nations like Canada, China, Korea, and Sweden) [13]. American policy and laws limit the amount of research and testing scientists can do, especially with a drug that is controversial. American malpractice laws easily allow patients to file lawsuits against doctors, making doctors and researchers extremely cautious and conservative in using novel, innovative drugs to treat patients. Other nations around the world foster research by removing restrictive laws that limit a scientist’s research possibilities [18][19]. To promote research and use of oncolytic viruses, American policies must adapt to allow greater opportunities for researchers without compromising patient safety.

Conclusion

In his story on the possibility of using oncolytic viruses as a cancer treatment, Ira Flatow, the host of National Public Radio’s “Science Friday,” queried, ““We know viruses can cause disease, but can they also help cure it?” [17] As we can see through the medical breakthroughs created by this compelling research, there is clearly a very bright future ahead for oncology, and more specifically, the oncolytic virus. With more research and testing, the oncolytic virus has the chance to revolutionize medicine by not only being the most effective treatment of cancer, but also the most improbable treatment. The goal of science is to unravel the mysteries of the universe, and at times, scientists have to expand their horizons and find answers in the most unlikely places. Considering the pace at which this research has been progressing, viruses may indeed have the potential to be beneficial; we simply need to stay aware of the implications.

Ayush Midha is a student at The Harker School in California, a part of The Triple Helix High School chapter program. Follow The Triple Helix Online @tthepub and join us on Facebook.

References

1. American cancer society. [homepage on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from: http://http://www.cancer.org/acs/groups/content/@epidemiologysurveilance/documents/document/acspc-029771.pd

2. World health organization. [homepage on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/index.html

3. MedlinePlus. [homepage on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from: http://www.nlm.nih.g ov/medlineplus/mplusdictionary.html

4. Kelly E, Russell SJ. Molecular therapy. Nature [serial on the Internet]. 2007 [cited 2011 Oct 4].;15(4) Available from: http://www.nature.com/mt/journal/v15/n4/full/6300108a.html

5. Liu T, Galanis E, Kirn D. Nature reviews clinical oncology. Nature [serial on the Internet]. 2007 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from: http://www.nature.com/nrclinonc/journal/v4/n2/full/ncponc0736.html

6. Pandha H, Melcher A, Harrington K. Molecular therapy. Nature [serial on the Internet]. 2009 [cited 2011 Oct 4].;17(6) Available from: http://www.nature.com/mt/journal/v17/n6/full/mt200986a.html

7. Cohen EE, Rudin CM. US National library of medicine national institutes of health. [homepage on the Internet]. 2001 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from: University of chicago, Section of hematology/oncology Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11892945

8. Khuri FR, Nemunaitis J, Ganly I. Nature Medicine. Nature [serial on the Internet]. 2000 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from: Nature, Web site: http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v6/n8/abs/nm0800_879.html

9. Schmidt C. Nature biotechnology. Nature [serial on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 4].;29(4) Available from: Nature, Web site: http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v29/n4/full/nbt0411-295.htm

10.  Deena B. Reuters. [homepage on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from: Reuters, Web site: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/31/us-cancer-virus-idUSTRE77U4NC20110831

11.  . BioVex. [homepage on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from:, Web site: http://www.oncovexgmcsf.com/clinicians_OncoVEX.html

12.  Coffin RS, Liu B, Ziqun H. Molecular therapy. Nature [serial on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from: Nature, Web site: http://www.nature.com/mt/journal/v13/n1s/abs/mt2006307a.html

13.  Tam,, Canada.com. [homepage on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from: www.canada.com/health/Tumour+attacking+virus+shows+promise+cancer+treatment/5335217/story.html?id=5335217&asid=d585aee4

14.  . Ottawa hospital research institute. [homepage on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from: Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Web site: http://www.ohri.ca/profiles/bell.asp

15.  Gallagher J. BBC news. [homepage on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from:, Web site: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-14730608

16.  . International business times. [homepage on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from:, Web site: http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/207756/20110902/virus-cancer-engineered-fight.htm

17.  . Chernajovsky Y, Layward L, Lemoine N. BMJ [serial on the Internet]. 2006. [cited 2012 Jan 9] Fighting cancer with oncolytic viruses, 2006; 332(7534):170-172. Available From: PubMed, Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1336773/

18.  . National Institute for Policy Analysis. [homepage on the Internet]. 2009 [cited 2012 Jan 9]. Available from: http://www.ncpa.org/sub/dpd/index.php?Article_ID=18460

19.  Albert T. Vindicated after his death: Doctor cleared of malpractice in clinical trials done 40 years ago, [homepage on the Internet]. 2002 [cited 2012 Jan 9]. Available from: http://www.ama-assn.org/amednews/2002/09/23/prl20923.htm

20.  Flatow I. National public radio. [homepage on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 4]. Available from: National public radio, Web site: http://www.npr.org/2011/09/02/140146786/delivering-viruses-to-try-and-kill-tumors

21. Image from http://www.aps.anl.gov/Science/Highlights/Content/APS_SCIENCE_20081021.php

One of the most prevalent physical ramifications of living in space is tissue loss; notably, bone decay, occurring at rates up to 1.5% loss per month in orbit1. Why does this occur? Existing literature about osteoporosis does not yet hold the full answer, but may be somewhat informative. Osteoporosis may be defined as the gradual bone loss that occurs when the rate of bone mineral resorption (the transfer of calcium from bone fluid to the blood) is greater than the rate of bone mineral deposition (the deposit of calcium compounds into the bone)2. Amongst the numerous risk factors for this condition, the primary factor related to space flight appears to be lack of exercise.  While mitigating benefits have been shown from regular exercise on a treadmill with resistance-inducing elastic straps, these benefits are just that—mitigating, and not yet fully protective. The same is applicable to muscle tissue, which tends to atrophy under the decreased demands of a zero-gravity environment. Take cardiac muscle as an example. Under normal conditions, gravitational pressure makes it necessary for the heart to pump faster to sustain blood flow. In absence of gravity, this pace is not sustained and decreases, with important consequences for readjustment upon return to Earth6.

The immune system is another biological structure affected by weightlessness. First, for a little background information. Monocytes, a type of white blood cell, play crucial functions in the immune system. Some of their roles include producing macrophages (infection killers), dendritic cells (immune system messengers), and cytokines (that respond to inflammation signals). Now, scientists often run experiments in microgravity conditions on Earth before attempting them in space, often inducing artificial microgravity by using magnetic fields9, 10. In one of these experiments, researchers observed that monocytes do not appear to fully mature into their subsequent forms (macrophages, dendritic cells, cytokines) in microgravity conditions8, 11, 12. Based on this discovery, scientists sent monocyte cultures into space and found similar results13,14,15. Adding to the problem, large infectious particles that would normally settle to the ground in a gravity-bound environment are free to float around the cabin in space16. All these factors combined result in an especially high prevalence of space infections and more minor conditions such as nasal congestion and puffiness in the face6.

Another important, if slightly less tangible, risk factor for astronauts is space radiation— that is to say, energy or matter that is not attenuated by the earth’s atmosphere. Said radiation can come from sources such as sunlight, subatomic matter moving through space, and matter-less particles (neutrinos)3. If enough radiation is present (i.e. during a solar storm), then it can be absorbed into the body of an astronaut, where it has adverse effects. Much like targeted radiation therapy in cancer treatment, general radiation results in the destruction of cells by damaging their DNA4. Radiation energy can displace electrons from atoms that had previously used them to form bonds with other atoms within a larger molecule5. According to NASA3, astronauts on the International Space Station experience what amounts to 8 chest X-rays of radiation per day.

There are also several neurologic consequences to space flight. In one notable experiment, the brains of rats sent to space aboard space shuttle Columbia were examined. Compared to the ground controls, space rats’ brains had significantly fewer connections between neurons18. This finding might help to explain the slower reaction times of astronauts in space in a series of tests19. Another rather dramatic effect of space travel is a disruption of the vestibular system, which is in charge of providing balance and spatial orientation. Under normal conditions, the gravity-sensitive otolith within the inner ear works in conjunction with sensory systems to provide feedback about a person’s position in the world. Now imagine you are floating in space. Your visual system detects an up and a down direction, but you feel no weight associated with your limbs to substantiate the perception.17 This perceptual contradiction results in space motion sickness, part of the constellation of symptoms under the general umbrella of space adaptation syndrome.

The psychological implications of space travel are just as significant as the physical ones. This is particularly true in long trips, where complications are more likely to arise. A mission to and from Mars, for example, would require crewmembers to cohabit in close quarters for approximately three years. Research has been conducted on somewhat analogous situations, such as extended Antarctic expeditions. Here, typical behavioral patterns have been uncovered—notably, a half-point surge of depression in travelers who realize how much of the journey there is still left22. In other relevant research, scientists investigated the properties of successful leaders and found that in the long run, leaders who focused on how people felt were more successful than task-oriented leaders- a principle that would be useful when applied to managing crewmember interactions on long duration space flights. Last but not least, studies have been conducted on the importance of astronaut-ground crew interactions, and have been applied to subsequent training of both astronauts in orbit and ground personnel23. In the end, it takes a specific kind of person to make a good astronaut—in particular, one with an elevated capacity to regulate stress, temporarily displace emotions, and filter out preoccupying thoughts20. In addition, astronauts must be highly resilient to environmental sources of psychological distress including isolation, interrupted sleep cycles, the hyperarousal caused by excitement, intense work schedules, and the absence of day and night in space21.

With all these possible outcomes in mind, is it still worth it to send astronauts into space? Given the redeeming scientific boons of space exploration and progress made in solving problems related to it, the answer is, increasingly, yes. Seeing as efforts to minimize the impact of zero gravity (i.e. exercise treadmills with heavy straps to exert tension on muscles and bones) have proven somewhat inadequate, the ideal answer might be to induce artificial gravity. One suggestion for doing this is to rotate the vehicle itself. Unfortunately, approaches such as this one are currently expensive and would require much attention to various engineering and safety issues.1. Until a more feasible solution is found, training and medical screenings remain simple but important ways to predict and minimize harmful side effects. Another simple preventative measure is to forecast environmental conditions before launch. While the radiation levels astronauts have been exposed to in space are high, they cannot compare to the deadly doses emitted by a solar flare. Scientists have now refined their detection techniques enough to predict solar flare onset two to three days in advance, by focusing on magnetic fields below the surface of the sun25. Besides this, research on effective measures to counteract Space Motion Sickness is being conducted and includes anti-motion sickness drugs, autogenic feedback training, and mechanical restraints (eg: neck braces) to prevent excessive activity. International research continues to progress, and will increasingly allow us to extract important functional practices to improve astronaut living conditions during space travel, which ultimately represents a crucial way to learn about our universe.

References:

1. “Astronaut Bone Loss.” Astroprof’s Page. http://astroprofspage.com/archives/804
2. “Pathophysiology: Biological Causes of Osteoporosis.” International Osteoporosis Foundation. http://www.iofbonehealth.org/health-professionals/about-osteoporosis/pathophysiology.html
3. “What are space radiation effects?” NASA. http://radbelts.gsfc.nasa.gov/outreach/effects.html
4. “Radiation Therapy for Cancer.” National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/radiation
5. “Somatic vs. Genetic Effects.” Jefferson Lab. http://www.jlab.org/div_dept/train/rad_guide/effects.html#somatic
6. “Physiological Effects of Weightlessness.” Oracle ThinkQuest. http://library.thinkquest.org/C003763/index.php?page=adapt02
7. Tokar, Steve. “Scientist/astronaut to study white blood cell dysfunction in space.” UCSF. http://www.ucsf.edu/news/2007/10/5626/scientist-astronaut-study-white-blood-cell-dysfunction-space
8. Vieru, Tudor. “Fruit Flies May Help Us Conquer Space.” Softpedia. http://news.softpedia.com/news/Fruit-Flies-May-Help-Us-Conquer-Space-244292.shtml
9. Larachi F, Munteanu MC. “Gas-Liquid Flow Solid-Catalyzed Reactions in Magnetic-Field Emulated Microgravity.” The Jounral of Physical Chemistry C 114, no. 14 (2010):6534-6542. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jp911949w
10. Cherylyn A, et al. “Characteristics of Human Dendritic Cells Generated in a Microgravity Analog Culture System.” Invitro Animal 37 (2001): 216-222. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4295198
11. Maier JA. “Impact of simulated microgravity on cell cycle control and cytokine release by U937 cells.” Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol. 19, no. 2(2006):279-86. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16831295
12. “Differentiation of Bone Marrow Macrophages in Space.” NASA http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BONEMAC.html
13. Crucian B, et al. “Altered Innate and Lymphocytic Immunity in Murine Splenocytes Following Short-Duration Spaceflight.” NASA Human Research Program Investigators’ Workshop. (2012) http://www.dsls.usra.edu/meetings/hrp2012/pdf/4167.pdf
14. Crucian B, et al. “Monocyte phenotype and cytokine production profiles are dysregulated by short-duration spaceflight.” Aviat Space Environ Med 82, no. 9 (2011): 857-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21888268
15. Czarnik, Tamarack. “Medical Emergencies in Space.” Mars Society. http://chapters.marssociety.org/usa/oh/aero5.htm
16. “Space Physiology”. NSBRI. http://www.nsbri.org/humanphysspace/focus7/spacephy.html
17. Krasnov IB, D’iachkova LN. “Morphology of the rat’s brain in and after a space flight: ultrastructure of the “blue spot”. Aviakosm Ekolog Med 37, no. 1 (2003):18-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12696497
18. Ratino DA, et al. “Quantification of reaction time and time perception during Space Shuttle operations.” Aviat Space Environ Med 59, no. 3 (1988):220-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3355476
19. Mason, Stephen. “How do Astronauts Remain Calm During Blast Off.” Psychology Today. http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/look-it-way/200907/how-do-astronauts-remain-calm-during-blast
20. Sharke, Stephanie. “Psychological and Physiological Barriers of a Mission to Mars.” http://tc.engr.wisc.edu/uer/uer96/author1/index.html
21. “How Astronauts Get Along.” NASA. http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/21oct_getalong/
22. “International Space Station Fact Sheet.” NASA http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/Interactions.html
23. “Managing Astronauts’ Health for Long-Duration Stays in Space.” JAXA Space Station. http://iss.jaxa.jp/iss/kibo/develop_status_9906_e.html
24. “NOAA Scientist Finds Clue to Predicting Solar Flares.” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2010/20100119_solarflare.html
25. Space Shuttle Columbia Launching. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Space_Shuttle_Columbia_launching.jpg
26. Astronaut EVA. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Astronaut-EVA.jpg

Isabelle is a fourth-year student at the University of Chicago majoring in Biology and Psychology. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

Human embryonic stem cell (hES cell) research is extremely important in the field of medicine. Scientists have used these cells to regenerate portions of an injured spinal cord and have created pancreatic beta cells to cure diabetes. In addition, scientists can test drugs on hES cells rather than on live animals or humans. hES cell research has also led to the discovery of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells), which are similar to hES cells and can be created from adult tissue.

However, the ethical dilemmas surrounding the use of embryonic stem cells must be resolved before this research can proceed. According to pro-research advocates, the use of hES cells in research is moral because these cells do not have the moral status of a human, as evinced by the phenomenon of twinning, the potential of the embryos in consideration, and the massive spontaneous abortion of embryos that occurs in the womb. However, pro-life advocates believe that embryos do have the moral statusof a human being because of their ability to develop and that hES cell research is immoral and unnecessary due to the development of iPS cells.

Background

hES cells are human embryonic cells that have not yet differentiated, or determined what type of cell to become. When extracted from the embryos, these cells can be forced to differentiate in vitro into one of the approximately 210 cell types in the human body [1]. In 1998, the first hES cells were isolated from embryos by James A. Thomson at the University of Wisconsin in Madison. These cells were extracted from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, or five- to seven-day-old embryos, which were created at a fertility clinic through in vitro fertilization (IVF) but were not transferred into a woman [1].

Since 1998, hES cells have been artificially differentiated into most of the cell types found in the body. In addition, research using hES cells has yielded valuable information regarding tissue creation and development [2].

hES cell research has also produced a surprising result: that it is possible to convert certain adult cells into partial undifferentiation, turning them into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells). These iPS cells are not as powerful as hES cells in that they cannot differentiate into all cell types, but they are still useful in treating certain diseases, such as diabetes and spinal cord injury [2].

Finally, the most important advantage of hES cell research involves aiding the treatment of diseases. One possible use of hES cells is drug testing to determine toxicity and possible side effects before performing animal and clinical trials. Most importantly, hES cells can be used as cures for particular diseases, as outlined below [2].

The Potential of hES Cells

One example of medicine based on the use of hES and iPS cells is regenerative medicine. Currently, doctors can cultivate iPS cells from a patient, force these iPS cells to differentiate into another cell type, and then inject the differentiated cells into the patient. This therapy is useful when combating diabetes and spinal cord injury, since iPS cells can differentiate into the pancreatic beta cells that diabetes patients need and neurons to reconnect broken portions of the spinal cord [3]. However, hES cells can provide even more powerful cures for such diseases. It may be possible to force a hES cell, not necessarily cultivated from a particular person, to differentiate into a pancreatic beta cell. If done successfully, this could be used as a universal treatment for diabetes and would be less expensive than an iPS cell-based treatment [3,4]. Regenerative medicine has been somewhat successful on either animals or humans for the following diseases: Parkinson’s disease, age-related macular degeneration, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and heart disease [4].

Another important application of hES cells in medicine involves drug screening. An example of this is motor neuron disease (MND), a genetic disease. Experimentation can be performed on hES cells that would determine whether certain mutations in the genome cause MND. Cells susceptible to MND can then be differentiated into neurons, which can be observed to determine the causes of the disease. In addition, a list of possible treatments can be created by testing the effects of various chemicals on the differentiated MND-susceptible neurons [5]. This form of testing is applicable not only to MND but also to other genetic diseases, such as cardiomyopathy and cancer [5].

Also, this system of testing can help scientists understand the causes of, symptoms of, and potential treatments for a particular disease. A variation of drug screening involves using iPS cells to identify potential side effects of chemotherapeutic drugs [4]. Scientists can cultivate cancerous and non-cancerous cells from a patient and force them to become iPS cells. They can then treat the iPS cells with a particular drug and determine whether the drug is effective in preventing cancer as well as possible side effects on the non-cancerous cells. This method is valuable, because it enables doctors to determine whether or not a drug harms a patient without actually injecting the drug.

Ethical Considerations

hES cell research should be subject to ethical guidelines; however, differing views exist regarding exactly what guidelines the government should enforce. It is clearly immoral to force parents to sacrifice their embryos for research. Pro-research advocates believe that ethical guidelines should ensure that embryos are produced through in vitro fertilization (IVF) and are no longer needed by the patient. In addition, embryos should be under fourteen days old and still in blastocyst form. Finally, consent should be obtained from the donors and no financial benefits should be offered [3].

Pro-research advocates claim that these criteria adequately address ethical arguments that claim hES research is immoral because an embryo, due to its potential, is a human being. According to them, the embryos being used in this form of research cannot be considered as human beings. First, they do not have the potential to become human beings. The guidelines outlined above ensure that embryos will never otherwise realize their potential: they have no access to a womb or the nutrients required to become a baby [2]. In addition, while in the blastocyst form, an embryo can twin, or divide in two to form two perfectly identical embryos. If embryos are recognized as human beings and moral agents, then one moral agent divides into two when it twins [2, 6].

According to pro-research advocates, this process is simply impossible; moral agents cannot spontaneously divide. In addition, if adult humans are considered identical to their embryos, then twins are also identical to the original undivided embryo. However, two different moral agents cannot be identical to a third [6]. Here, considering embryos as having the potential to become human beings leads to an illogical conclusion.

In addition, pro-research advocates note that humans inherently reject the idea that embryos are moral agents. The majority of fertilized eggs produced through sexual reproduction never actually become embryos. Anywhere from two-thirds to four-fifths of all embryos are spontaneously destroyed by the body [2]. If embryos were given the moral status of human beings, then this natural abortion process would have to be stopped. However, humans do not call for research into preventing spontaneous abortion and thus accept that embryos are not human beings. Pro-research advocates use these arguments to support the use of hES cells in research.

However, pro-life advocates do not support the use of hES cells in research. They point to the advances made in using iPS cells and propose alternative solutions using adult cells [2]. In addition, pro-life advocates believe that embryos can be considered a moral agent. The logical fallacy associated with the situation of twinning is irrelevant because, regardless of whether or not an embryo can divide, it is still considered a moral agent [7]. They believe that the embryo is considered a moral agent just as the baby is considered a moral agent: both can develop into adulthood. Despite the irrationality of both, since they have the potential to develop into a full-fledged human, they are considered moral agents [7]. Thus, pro-life advocates believe that regardless of the source of the embryo it should not be sacrificed in order to produce hES cells for research.

Conclusion

hES research has great potential in the field of medicine; examples of this include regenerative medicine and drug screening. The ethical considerations regarding hES cell research must be resolved. If exploited to its full potential, hES cell research can provide valuable tools for doctors to analyze genetic diseases such as cancer and predict the effects of drugs on patients. In addition, the problems associated with regeneration of neurons can be circumvented by the use of hES cells. The potential social benefits lying in hES cell research are huge due to the wide variety of diseases that can be treated as a result.

Article References

1. Knowles L, Parens E. Encyclopaedia Britannica [Internet]. [place unknown]: Encyclopaedia Britannica 1999 [cited 2011 Oct 12]. Available from: http://puffin.harker.org:2053/all/eb/article-9342369?query=embryonic%20stem%20cell%20research&ct=null
2. Lindsay R. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context [Internet]. [place unknown]: Gale. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 12]. Available from: http://puffin.harker.org:2302/‌ic/‌ovic/‌ViewpointsDetailsPage/‌ViewpointsDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Viewpoints&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=OVIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE|EJ3010155230&mode=view
3. Rugnetta M, Peroski M. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context [Internet]. [place unknown]: Gale. 2008 [cited 2011 Oct 12]. Available from: http://puffin.harker.org:2302/‌ic/‌ovic/‌ViewpointsDetailsPage/‌ViewpointsDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Viewpoints&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=OVIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE|EJ3010155231&mode=view
4. Coalition for the Advancement of Medical Research. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context [Internet]. [place unknown]: Gale. 2011 [cited 2011 Oct 12]. Available from: http://puffin.harker.org:2302/ic/ovic/ViewpointsDetailsPage/ViewpointsDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Viewpoints&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=OVIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE|EJ3010155227&mode=view&
5. Wilmut I. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context [Internet]. [place unknown]: Gale. 2006 [cited 2011 Oct 12]. Available from: http://puffin.harker.org:2302/‌ic/‌ovic/‌ViewpointsDetailsPage/‌ViewpointsDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Viewpoints&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=OVIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE|EJ3010212254&mode=view
6. Lindsay R A. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context [Internet]. [place unknown]: Gale. 2008 [cited 2011 Oct 12]. Available from: http://puffin.harker.org:2302/‌ic/‌ovic/‌ViewpointsDetailsPage/‌ViewpointsDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Viewpoints&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=OVIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE|EJ3010112276&mode=view
7. George R P, Lee P. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context [Internet]. [place unknown]: Gale. 2009 [cited 2011 Dec 15]. Available from: http://puffin.harker.org:2302/ic/ovic/ViewpointsDetailsPage/ViewpointsDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Viewpoints&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=OVIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE|EJ3010453243&mode=view

Vikram Sundar is a student at The Harker School in California, a part of The Triple Helix High School Chapter Program. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

Unfortunately, current alternative energy options cannot support the global population; the most economically viable source, hydropower, accounts only for seven percent of the U.S.’s energy consumption, and this ratio is unlikely to grow in the future [2].

World Energy Breakdown

In the meantime, billions of tons of fossil fuel emissions pollute our atmosphere, and already the effects of these emissions are felt through global warming, acid rain, smog, and an increase in respiratory diseases [2, 3].Moreover, fossil fuels have been showing signs of running out, and it will take centuries before the supply is replenished.

And then there is nuclear power. Extremely controversial, the use of nuclear energy still manages to account for twenty percent of the United States’ electricity [4]. Furthermore, it has stable long term costs and an effective output; in comparison to the billions of tons of greenhouse gas and thousands of pollutants from fossil fuel, the annual spent nuclear fuel for the world is 12,000 tons [5]. However, nuclear energy has three divisive issues: the role of nuclear energy in war and terrorism, the disastrous plant failures, and, the most pressing problem, waste disposal.  Though several waste disposal propositions have been made in the U.S., including the idea to seal it in Mt. Yucca, none permanently solve the problem.

However, the answer to this problem lies not in isolated mountains, but with microscopic bacteria. Geobacter bacteria are microbes that have the surprising, and previously mystifying, ability to generate electricity while cleaning up uranium and other toxic materials in groundwater [6]. Having discovered the mechanics behind the bacteria, researchers are working to develop lasting solutions to nuclear waste disposal [6].

The Bacteria

Field tested in a uranium cleanup site in Rifle, Colorado, Geobacter sulfurreducens showed promising results [7]. After scientists injected acetate, the bacteria’s food, into the groundwater, the microbes multiplied and rendered the uranium insoluble [7]. Consequently, uranium was prevented from seeping further into the wells and environment.  However, even though its ability has been extensively documented, only recently have researchers at the Michigan State University discovered the secret behind the microorganism’s ability.

Similar to nanowires, the bacterium’s conductive pili, hair-like structures on its surface, release the electrons the microbe produces into materials such as uranium; this in turn reduces the metal, making it much less soluble, while creating electricity [6]. Gemma Reguera, a Michigan State University AgBioResearch scientist, describes this process as “nature’s version of electroplating with uranium” [6]. She also foresees a wide range of possibilities from this new discovery: modifying the bacteria’s functional groups to extend its range to radioactive isotopes of technetium, plutonium, and cobalt, and replicating the bacteria’s ability with devices composed of nanowires, which would aid the cleanup of sites such as Fukushima where the bacteria cannot survive [6]. Yuri Gorby, a microbiologist of the University of Southern California believes that the new field of “electromicrobiology” can encompass other microbes with conductive nanowires, such as photosynthetic  cyanobacteria and thermopilic methanogens [6]. Overall this recent breakthrough not only represents an important advancement in bioremediation, the use of biological organisms to reduce radiation, but the potential of a microbial fuel cell that generates electricity while cleaning up nuclear waste. Consequently, even though this technology is still in its infancy, this discovery prompts a reexamination of its impact on nuclear energy in the future.

With a method to immobilize the waste, the immediate issue will be solved. However, the ethical debate still remains: are the potential disasters worth it?

Future Effects on Nuclear Energy

As previously mentioned, the three main disadvantages of nuclear power are waste disposal, energy security, and nuclear disasters.

While nuclear energy produces much less waste than fossil fuels, the waste it does produce lasts for a long time. At the moment spent nuclear waste is designated to remote storage units underground. However, low level radioactive waste is dangerous for three hundred to five hundred years, while the high level radiation can last for ten thousand [2].  The uncertainty of the level of security in the next couple centuries, let alone the next ten millennia, makes nuclear energy much less viable.

Furthermore, other ethical and political obstacles remain.

For one, nuclear energy has become even more thoroughly enmeshed in global politics than fossil fuels. In the case of nuclear energy, stringent countermeasures have been made. For example, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, covering all countries except India, Pakistan, Israel, and North Korea, halts the development of nuclear weapons and only promotes peaceful nuclear use [8]. Unfortunately, the fact still remains that nuclear plants are excellent targets in a war; a single well-aimed missile could trigger a devastating nuclear meltdown.

This leads into the final issue of nuclear plant failures.

Once touted as the panacea to the growing energy crisis, nuclear energy’s glowing reputation turned to dust along with the nuclear disasters at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima, to name a few. While the infamous Chernobyl accident could be attributed to poorly trained staff and faulty equipment, the power plant of Fukushima was of newer technology. However, soon after the disaster it surfaced that a report made two decades ago identified the risk of such an event causing a nuclear failure for that type of plant; however, Tokyo Electric did not take adequate countermeasures [9]. In fact, in general the history of nuclear energy is characterized by governments and businesses either downplaying dangerous radioactivity or concealing crucial facts; the lack of transparency and accountability on their parts is a major deterrent as well.

The major advantage in the advancement of bioremediation is that it will greatly help prevent the escape of radiation from plants and the cleaning of nuclear disaster sites such as Fukushima and Chernobyl [2]. Also, it will allow outdated nuclear plants to be more effectively dismantled without releasing dangerous levels of radiation into the environment [2].

Conclusion

Society has a moral obligation to preserve the environment for future generations; at the same time, we must rise to meet our increasing energy needs. Although advancements in bioremediation will greatly facilitate cleanup of disaster sites, it cannot account for the politics behind nuclear energy. If the world is to switch more of its energy to nuclear sources, governments and businesses involved in the industry must increase transparency and accountability. Until then the future use of bioremediation will have to become a way for society to clean up nuclear mistakes of the past, not further nuclear energy in the future.

References

1. International Energy Agency. [Internet] “World Oil Demand.” International Energy Agency.  [cited Dec. 17 2011]
2. Blatt H. America’s environmental report card: Are we making the grade? Cambridge: The MIT Press; 2005.
3. World Health Organization. [Internet] “Air quality and health.” World Health Organization. [cited Dec. 18 2011]
4. Cologgi DL. [Internet] “Nuclear explained: Use of nuclear power.” U.S. Energy Information
   Administration. U.S. Department of Energy [cited  Sept. 8 2011]
5. Dudley W. The environment: Opposing viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press; 2001
6. Sweetlove L. [Internet]“Electrified bacterial filaments remove uranium from
   groundwater.” Scientific American. Scientific American. [cited Sept.8 2011].
7. Michigan State University. [Internet] “Microbes generate electricity while cleaning up nuclear waste.” ScienceDaily.[cited Sept. 8 2011].
8. Allison G. Nuclear terrorism: The ultimate preventable catastrophe.. 1^st ed. New York: Times Books; 2004
9. Kitamura M, Shiraki M. [Internet] “Japan’s Reactor Risk Foretold 20 Years Ago in U.S. Agency Report. “ Bloomberg. [cited Dec. 18 2011].

Monica Kumaran is a student at The Harker School in California, a part of The Triple Helix High School Chapter Program. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

Yoshiro NakaMats

Known as “Japan’s Edison,” Yoshiro NakaMats holds the world record for patents, with over 3,000 to his credit.  You can thank NakaMats for the digital watch, the CD, and the DVD, just to name a few of his most popular inventions1. However, his method for invention, as well as his daily routine, may strike you as odd.  Dr. NakaMats, who believes that more than six hours of sleep is detrimental to the brain, sleeps only four hours a day.  His diet involves one meal a day consisting of a special mixture of dried shrimp, seaweed, cheese, yogurt, eel, eggs, beef, and chicken livers, which NakaMats claims is beneficial to mental activity.  Dr. NakaMats considers too much oxygen a hindrance to invention, so he spends hours each day diving in his pool and holding his breath for as long as possible underwater.  He resurfaces to jot his ideas down on a waterproof, Plexiglas notepad — which he invented2. NakaMats is one of the many extremely creative types that exhibit odd behaviors.  Scientists now have research showing that biology can explain why creativity and quirkiness are often connected.

Scientists have used psychological tests, brain imaging, and molecular biology to explain the link between eccentricity and creativity.  Recently, Shelley Carson, a researcher at Harvard University, discovered a possible answer to this mysterious connection, and it deals with a process called cognitive disinhibition3.  Our brain has filters for the large number of sensory signals and thoughts that we receive on a daily basis.  These filters prevent the brain from being overwhelmed with distracting information and allow us to focus on the tasks at hand.  Reduction in the ability to screen this onslaught of information is termed cognitive disinhibition.  A person with cognitive disinhibition is consciously aware of more information.  This stimuli surplus can then be processed in atypical and original ways to make connections between things that would otherwise have gone unnoticed.  Making unusual connections is the foundation of creativity.

To measure eccentricity, scientists sometimes use tests that measure schizotypal personality, which is associated with odd behaviors, inability to form close relationships, and superstitious or paranormal beliefs.  Schizotypal personality is a milder variety of the mental health condition called schizotypal personality disorder.  Research has shown that schizotypal individuals often have reduced cognitive inhibition, which is associated with higher levels of creative thinking.  Schizotypal people are often smart and talented, and do not necessarily have a personality disorder.  People who are able to make unusual connections score higher on creativity as well as eccentricity tests, which Carson attributes to cognitive disinhibition. This is because moments of insight generally come when the filters in the brain relax for a moment, and an idea becomes accessible.  People with cognitive disinhibition have reduced function of these filters, which could result in more flashes of insight.  Being able to utilize the excess stimuli requires higher level cognitive functioning, but it could be the key to creative thinking.

Electroencephalography (EEG) device

Various brain imaging and electroencephalography (EEG) studies have been done on people that tested well on the creativity scales and exhibited schizotypal personality traits.  Colin Martindale of the University of Maine conducted an EEG study that showed that creative thinkers produce more brain waves in the alpha range when performing creative tasks4.  Alpha brain waves have a low frequency, and are associated with relaxed activity in your mind and body.  Martindale interpreted these alpha range brain waves to be a sign of reduced stimuli filtration and consequently more intake of information.  Andreas Fink at the University of Graz replicated Martindale’s experiment but came to a different conclusion.  He claims that alpha activity is a marker for concentration on internal stimuli, instead of external perceptions, which are common schizotypal personality behaviors5.

In 2009 John Kounios of Drexel University and Mark Beeman of Northwestern University used both functional magnetic resonance imaging and EEG to measure brain patterns of subjects while they solved problems6. Kounios and Beeman focused on the bursts of insight associated with cognitive disinhibition.  By asking subjects to indicate the moment they knew the answer, Beeman and Kounios found that alpha activity precedes a burst of gamma activity at the moment of insight.  Gamma brain waves have high frequency and are generally related to mental processing, perception of reality, and memory.  Kounios and Beeman concluded that alpha activity focuses on internal stimuli, whereas the gamma burst marks the instant when the answer enters conscious awareness.

The research being done to analyze the alpha and gamma brain waves is integral to understanding the neurobiology behind the behaviors of creative eccentrics.  The cognitive disinhibition seen in people with schizotypal personality could further understanding of the connection between creativity and eccentricity.  Researching this connection could help explain the eccentric tendencies of incredibly creative people like Dr. NakaMats, who spends hours underwater every day diving for ideas.

References

1. Thompson, C. The Edison of Japan [Internet]. 2010 [updated 2010 Feb 10; cited 2012 Feb]. Available from: http://www.whatagreatidea.com/nakamatsu.htm
2. Lazarus, D. ‘Japan’s Edison’ Is Country’s Gadget King : Japanese Inventor Holds Record for Patent. The New York Times [Internet]. 1995 April 10 [cited 2012 Feb]; Available from: http://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/10/news/10iht-matscon.ttt.html?pagewanted=all
3. Carson, S. The Unleashed Mind: Why Creative People Are Eccentric. Scientific American [Internet]. 2011 April 14 [cited 2012 Feb]; Available from: http://www.nature.com/scientificamericanmind/journal/v22/n2/full/scientificamericanmind0511-22.html
4. Colin Martindale, Dwight Hines, Linda Mitchell, Edward Covello, EEG alpha asymmetry and creativity, Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 5, Issue 1, 1984, Pages 77-86, ISSN 0191-8869, 10.1016/0191-8869(84)90140-5.  (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0191886984901405)
5. Fink, A., Grabner, R. H., Benedek, M., Reishofer, G., Hauswirth, V., Fally, M., Neuper, C., Ebner, F. and Neubauer, A. C. (2009), The creative brain: Investigation of brain activity during creative problem solving by means of EEG and FMRI. Hum. Brain Mapp., 30: 734–748. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20538
6. Jung-Beeman M, Bowden EM, Haberman J, Frymiare JL, Arambel-Liu S, et al. (2004) Neural Activity When People Solve Verbal Problems with Insight.PLoS Biol 2(4): e97. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020097
7. Image: Ushuaia.pl. Nakamatsu. Wikimedia Commons [Internet]. 2010 May 14 [cited 2012 Mar 27]; Available from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nakamatsu.jpg
8. Image: Moren j. EEG. Flickr [Internet]. 2011 Jan 6 [cited 2012 Mar 27]; Available from: http://www.flickr.com/photos/jannem/5335327140/in/photostream/

Lin Boynton is a first -year student at the University of Chicago majoring in biological chemistry. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

Healthpoint was started by Dr. Allen Hammond, a strong believer in market-based solutions to development issues, as a method by which to provide healthcare to the rural poor in India. Healthpoint focuses on striving to achieve the UN Millennium Development Goals, particularly Goal 4 regarding reducing child mortality. Healthpoint, like many businesses, cites its values as being “Customers come first,” “Culture of respect,” and “Continuous improvement.”

Because sanitary water plays a large role in maintaining good health, Healthpoint provides both sanitary water and consultations with medical professionals. Each Healthpoint unit contains both a water-cleansing facility and a video conferenced medical facility. Villagers visit daily to obtain clean water at a low cost of approximately $1.50 per month. Because of the facilities’ proximity, it draws a large majority of villagers. The medical consultations at a Healthpoint clinic function much like those of a regular clinic; a patient is checked in to a clinic and escorted to a private room. In each room, there is a video conferencing screen which allows for patient-doctor communication. A facilitator in each room mediates conversation between the doctor and patient: translating, retrieving equipment to conduct small tests such as blood pressure, and serving other patient needs. Succeeding the visit with the doctor, the patient visits a pharmacy located within the clinic to obtain medication. If clinical testing is necessary, it is conducted by lab technicians within the clinic. Testing for most diseases costs approximately 20 more cents, and medicine costs the same. The consultation itself costs around 40 cents, a nominal fee.1

For their investment, this company’s returns are substantial. Presently, it has $3 million invested as capital. Going forward, Healthpoint is aspiring to prompt innovators to imitate its successful business model. Currently, it has expanded itself to Latin America and the Philippines to see if a different audience will react similarly to this service. Healthpoint’s partners include Airtel, the Calvert Foundation, and Procter & Gamble, as it spans across for-profit and non-profit sectors for assistance.

Healthpoint’s business model has four central tenets: democratization of healthcare, sustainability (with a focus on economic returns), replicability/scalability, and innovation. First, Healthpoint intends to democratize healthcare by involving the local citizenry in healthcare systems. This interrelates with their sustainability model: Healthpoint actively works to provide jobs for local community members in order to ensure the future sustainability of medical checkpoints. A unit typically provides between 5 and 6 community members with employment. Healthpoint aspires to ensure that their model is replicable and scalable by charging for their services. In this manner, Healthpoint’s customer base determines the appropriate size of the business and the business can appropriately and specifically address their needs. Finally, Healthpoint focuses on innovation and new methods to improve healthcare.2

A group of women gathering in a slum to learn how to jointly apply for a loan.

The Calvert Foundation, one of Healthpoint’s partners, capitalizes on such returns for investment. It specifically takes investments and provides them to poor people attempting to rebuild their business after a catastrophe has prevented them from continuing. Loans the Foundation provides are limited to 10% of the company’s assets. The Calvert Foundation, though, differs from Healthpoint in that it is a non-profit organization. Instead of implementing market-based solutions themselves, they empower other people and organizations, including microfinancing organizations, to do so.2

Healthpoint takes one approach to for-profit social enterprise: providing services. Another very common approach is providing small loans or grants, termed microfinance. A prominent for-profit microfinance institutions is SKS microfinance founded by Vikram Akula in 1998. SKS distributes loans ranging from $46 to $260 to urban and rural poor women in India. It uses a model in which the women guarantee each other’s loans and large loan amounts can only be obtained through the collaboration of multiple women. The loans are collateral free, and there are weekly meetings held in the slum communities or village centers for women who are borrowers. Furthermore, SKS standardizes its loan packages to, according to SKS, better cater to their customers. In the case that customers do not have the financial literacy to make the best use of the loans, SKS provides training to run an income generating enterprise and to manage assets through its Ultra Poor Program.3

This business model is very similar to the business model of many non-profit microlending agencies. However, SKS turns a profit of approximately 1,270 crore rupees from 7307 members. It is the largest microfinance organization in India, operating in 19 states. SKS is so successful that it has even attracted investment from other corporations, including Bajaj Allianz, an insurance company.3

Muhammud Yunus, known as the ‘father of microfinance’ for his work with Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, has expressed doubt towards SKS and similar for-profit microfinance institutions. Yunus critiques that for-profit, public organization like SKS inevitably must focus on their investors rather than the poor they are helping. He states that going public implies to potential investors that there is an opportunity to make money from poor people. Akula counters that for-profit enterprise is the only way in which to raise sufficient funds to finance all those in need and that SKS has not yet lost sight of its ultimate mission.4

Healthpoint and SKS microfinance represent successes in the world of social enterprise. Their work is similar to charitable organizations with similar goals, but they are able to turn a profit while achieving noble goals. Their business models indicate that the key to creating successful for-profit social enterprises is to engage the community by providing them with employment or by ensuring that there is regular contact with community members.

References

1. “Transforming Rural Health Care,” E Health Point, last accessed February 28, 2012, <http://ehealthpoint.com/>.
2. John Ydstie, “Selling Water, Health Care In The Developing World.” National Public Radio, November 22, 2011, accessed February 28, 2012. <http://www.npr.org/2011/11/22/142184691/selling-water-health-care-in-the-developing-world>.
3. “Know SKS,” SKS, last accessed February 28, 2012, <http://www.sksindia.com/prospective_employees.php>.
4. “SKS Microfinance,”Angel Broking, last accessed March , 2012.  <https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://indiamicrofinance.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/sks-ipo-angel-broking.pdf&pli=1>
5. Image (CC-BY-NC): Todd Gehman, “consulting,” Flickr, September 23, 2009, accessed April 9, 2012. <http://www.flickr.com/photos/pugetive/4065331223/>
6. Image: Dhrooti Vyas.

Dhrooti Vyas is a second-year majoring in political science and possibly biology. She is very interested in social entrepreneurship and international development, particularly new ventures in global health. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

Neuroscientists who study music’s effects on the brain are split into two factions—those that believe music did evolve as some kind of evolutionary adaptation (to explain exactly why, only theories exist), and those that believe it was merely an incident that was not shaped by, nor did it shape, the evolution of humans into what we are today. The former concludes that music increased human fitness through reproduction and survival. The latter says music didn’t affect our fitness at all.

Charles Darwin, the face of evolutionary biology himself, believed music evolved through courtship rituals, and thus was a reproductive adaptation used to increase reproductive success. He used bird courtship songs as evidence and claimed, in his Descent of Man, that music and sex are inexplicably linked².

In his 1997 publication of How the Mind Works, Steve Pinker argued against Darwin and claimed that music was the side effect of other adaptations, and has no evolutionary significance. Echoing the thoughts of William James, a psychologist from the late 1800s, Pinker believes that rhythms and melodies are the by-products of other evolutionary adaptations such as walking, running, and language¹. Rhythms reflect the beats with which we walk and the syllables with which we talk, but they did not evolve for any direct purpose, and did not increase fitness in any way.

A psychologist from Oxford University, Robin Dunbar, states that music evolved as social glue, like the practice of grooming, which held together bonds between people. Scientists have shown through a series of tests that endorphin levels are higher after people perform and/or listen to music². Higher endorphin levels lead to increased social behavior.

But another neuroscientist disagrees with Dunbar’s hypothesis, and agrees with Pinker in saying that music did not evolve for any significant purpose. Aniruddh Patel, from the Neurosciences Institute in La Jolla, California, counters Dunbar’s argument by saying that those with social impairments should not be able to comprehend music or have musical abilities if music did evolve as an agency of social bonding. Yet many people with autism have the same perception and ability to play music as those without autism².

The controversy surrounding this debate about whether or not music evolved as a specific adaptation or merely a side effect may never end. There is too much we don’t know, such as how music could possibly have increased our fitness, and how exactly music heightens endorphin levels. The most likely possibility, cited most often by scientists, is that music is not an adaptation but rather a side effect of socializing, since it evolved primarily as an activity prevalent within groups of people. Nonetheless, the positive effects of music are being realized further and further every day, from musical therapy to the effects of classical music on the brain while studying. For now, we can revel in the brilliant way music brings people together and affects human emotion, whether it increased our survival or not.

References

[1] Balter, Micheal, “Seeking the Key to Music,” Science 306 (2004): 1120-1122, accessed December 10, 2011.

[2] Zimmer, Carl, “The Brain,” Discover 31.10 (2010): 28-29, accessed December 4, 2011.

Tina Shah is a student at Cornell University. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

Mandelbrot’s Story: From World War II France to ‘60s America

Mandelbrot was born in Warsaw in 1924 and privately tutored by an uncle who despised rote learning. His first exposure to algebra and his self-discovery as a mathematician followed his family’s relocation to France in 1936. After being relegated to the countryside at the onset of war in 1944, he was hidden by French resistance members in a Lyon school. For every question the professor asked, Mandelbrot would describe a geometrical approach to yield a fast, simple solution. He passed in this way through a series of elite French universities as well as Caltech.  He returned to Paris for his PhD, then proceeded to the Institute for Advanced Study. It was during these heady years that Mandelbrot developed the fractal, to which we now turn. 1

Fractals: An Introduction to Mandelbrot’s Beautiful Creations

The concepts behind the math Mandelbrot developed during those years and which he applied to fields as varied as economics and thermodynamics are easy to learn, and the results are often visually stunning. Perhaps the most important concept for our purpose in fractal geometry is that of the fractal dimension. Since the time of Euclid, a point in any space has had no dimension. A straight line has had one. A curve has had two and so on. But what about a fractional dimension? The utility of such a concept is that, unlike integer-valued dimensions, it can be used to measure roughness. 1,2

Think about is this way: Measuring a single line requires one ruler, while approximating a curve requires many smaller rulers. A rougher figure, such as the British coastline, requires even more. There is no single answer to the question of how long the coastline is. Unlike the smooth curve, the rough coastline does not provide one best estimate of length. Your answer to the question depends on the scale of the map you are drawing. 1

Mandelbrot’s solution is startlingly simple and very illuminating: for each ‘ruler’ you use, write down the estimate of the length of the coastline you get. Then halve the size of the ruler. Write down the new, increased estimate. And so on.  Observing the results of this exercise reveals a startlingly simple truth: the length we are recording increases at a more or less stable rate! This rate is Mandelbrot’s fractal dimension. 1

Bachelier And Those Who Came After

The most important effect of Mandelbrot’s math was to rework how financial theorists and traders viewed price change and volatility. To understand this effect and how radical it was, we must travel back in time, once again, to Paris. The year is 1900. The French mathematician Louis Bachelier, in his PhD thesis ‘Theorie de la Speculation’ asked the million-dollar question: ’How do bond prices move?’ He made an ingenious observation: the volatile pattern with which heat moved from particle to particle in a physical system was like the volatile pattern of bond price movement. In both systems it was possible to derive a probability distribution that broadly described its behavior.1,2,3

With this in mind, Bachelier tried to calculate the odds of a bond price going up or down. He assumed that there were two viewpoints to consider: after the event had occurred and before the event had occurred. After the price change, it was possible to attribute some form of cause and effect to the price change. But before the event had occurred, traders assumed that the market had already taken account of all relevant information and that demand would equal supply. Unless new information about a bond emerged, there was no reason to assume its price would change. The next change was as likely to be up as down. In essence, prices followed a random walk. Each price fluctuation is independent, driven by a mysterious statistical process that drives markets. Bachelier discovered that if one were to plot the price changes of a bond over a period of a month or a year, the many small price changes would cluster in the middle, while the fewer large price changes would be at the edges: a Gaussian distribution, so ubiquitous in modern statistics that it is known as the ‘normal curve.’ This opened up the standard mathematical toolkit for use in finance. 1,3

Later theorists built up a towering structure based on the assumption that bond prices were like a fair game where the long-run payoff is zero. Eugene Fama of the University of Chicago formulated the efficient markets hypothesis: a stock price always reflects all relevant information that the market has to offer. Many advances were made in deriving pricing mechanisms for risk and assets based on the idea that each price change was independent of the last. Modern finance as we know it emerged. 1

Challenging Bachelier: Mandelbrot’s New View of Volatility

There is a very old and very simple game that mathematicians like to play.  Two brothers, Harry and Tom, bet on the toss of a coin. Each toss is pure luck. Harry wins one Swiss franc on every heads. Tom wins one Swiss franc on every tails. If they play the game long enough, probability theory says that their payoffs will converge to some expected value. In this case, each brother would expect to win half the time. 1,2

But other aspects of the game get more complicated. At any given moment in the game, either Harry or Tom might have accumulated far more winnings than the other. Willey Feller, author of a widely used 1950s college textbook on probability, actually graphed each brother’s winnings over 10,000 coin tosses. Most readers did not pay this graph any attention, but Mandelbrot did: he found that the times at which each brother’s purse emptied out were clustered together. It was an irregular pattern: a few long, up and down cycles, with shorter cycles riding on top of them: it seemed that price changes were not independent of one another, which meant that the efficient markets hypothesis (which assumed a ‘random walk’) was based on a fallacious assumption, as were Black-Scholes’ equations. 1

The French maverick mathematician discerned an important pattern: he found that the irregular, rough pattern in the many pennies game implied a different kind of randomness, a kind of randomness wilder than the politely shaped Gaussian distribution. 1

It was the winter of 1961. When he made this discovery, Mandelbrot was at IBM, studying income distribution patterns between the rich and poor. The Harvard economics department invited him to speak about his work. He walked into the office of his host that day to a surprise. On the chalk-board was a figure with a convex shape that opened to the right. He immediately turned to Professor Hendrik Houthhakker and asked why his diagram was already drawn. Houthhakker was perplexed: ‘These are graphs of cotton prices.’ 1,2

The puzzling similarity in pattern between income distribution and cotton prices got Mandelbrot thinking. Was it pure coincidence that the two were spitting images of one another, or was there a deeper truth in the strange connection between the two pictures? And so it was that Mandelbrot was propelled into investigating the mysteries of finance. 1,2

Different Kinds of Randomness as Different Kinds of Volatility

The difference between a Gaussian distribution and the kind of distribution that the shape of the Feller graph implied for Mandelbrot can be demonstrated aptly with the following parable. Imagine an archer shooting between two horizontal lines drawn in white paint on a wall 100 yards away.  In the first scenario, the archer is blindfolded. Naturally, his arrows are all over the place. The statistician sitting safely behind the archer graphs each of the archer’s shots on a frequency vs. distance from target graph. The pattern is rough and irregular: a Levy distribution. Now imagine scenario two. The same archer minus the blind-fold. He obviously manages many more shots closer to the target, and comparatively fewer shots far away from the target. This time, the statistician’s graph looks far more familiar: a normal curve, a Gaussian bell.1

Mandelbrot compared each distribution from the above scenario to the Feller graph. He found that, over a long period of time such as that represented by 10,000 coin tosses, the distribution corresponded to the Levy distribution, and not the bell curve! 1

The Role of Fractals: Conclusion

Mandelbrot began, in a series of subsequent papers, to measure the roughness of different Levy distributions (as bond prices, of course) using fractals. And so it came to be known, at least in a select circle of the academic world, that the fractal dimension of a Levy distribution is a far more accurate measure of volatility than a Gaussian distribution. 2

While Mandelbrot’s finding may seem innocuous to some, the implications are profound. What is very, very unlikely for a system that follows a Gaussian distribution is far more so for a Levy distribution. This means that recessions, big price changes, and all the other things which modern financial theory posited were ‘six-sigma’ events, events that shouldn’t have happened, are the results of models based on inaccurate assumptions. These models, Mandelbrot’s body of work suggests, have caused us to misperceive risk in a dangerous way. His work is a potential explanation to unusual market volatility: it suggests that our notions of ‘usual’ might be incorrect. There are academics who have taken up the baton from Mandelbrot, who died last October. These scholars work to build fractal descriptions of markets, models that take into account the Levy distribution. It remains to be seen how long it will take Wall Street to begin using these Levy-based models. 1

References:

1. Benoit Mandelbrot and Richard Hudson, ‘The (Mis)behavior of Markets: A Fractal View of Risk, Ruin, and Reward,’ Basic Books, August 2004
2. Benoit Mandelbrot, ‘The Variation of Certain Speculative Prices,’ The Journal of Business, Vol. 36, No. 4, October 1963, pp. 394-419
3. Louis Bachelier (Author), Mark Davis (Translator), and Alison Etheridge (Translator), ‘Louis Bachelier’s Theory of Speculation: The Origins of Modern Finance,’ Princeton University Press, September 2006
4. Benoit Mandelbrot, ‘Fractals and Scaling in Finance: Discontinuity, Concentration, Risk,’ Springer, 1997
5. Image (CC-BY-SA): Ken Teegardin, “Graph with Stacks of Coins,” Flickr, taken March 4, 2011, accessed April 2, 2012, http://www.flickr.com/photos/teegardin/6093690339/.
6. Image (CC-BY-NC-ND): Jack Keene, “Cracked,” Flickr, taken July 5, 2006, accessed April 2, 2012, http://www.flickr.com/photos/whatknot/2804669838/
7. Image (used with permission): Jez Liberty, “Why Trend Following Works: Look at the Distribution,” Au.Tra.Sy blog — Automated Trading System, last modified October 21, 2009, accessed April 2, 2012, http://www.automated-trading-system.com/why-trend-following-works-look-at-the-distribution/

Akshat Goel is a second-year student at the University of Chicago majoring in economics and sociology. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

Some have blamed economic policy makers on the Hill while others like the Occupy Wall Street protesters have channeled their anger toward large corporate executives. However, a growing number of people point to the educational system, in particular the lack of financial literacy education in the United States. Studies show that people with lower incomes track spending better but are often unaware of other aspects of financial literacy such as basic investing, loans, and credit.

Forty-one percent of U.S. adults gave themselves a C, D, or F on their knowledge of personal finance, a substantial increase from 33% in 2010. In 2011, half of adults who earned less than $35,000 or $35,000 to less than $50,000 had a budget and tracked their spending, compared with just three in ten adults who earn $100,000 or more6. Financial literacy is defined as “the ability to make informed judgments and effective decisions regarding the use and management of money and wealth7.” Currently, only seven states require financial literacy to be a part of the public school curriculum5. Private and public coalitions have made efforts to contribute to the expansion of financial literacy education in the United States, but there is insufficient data about their impact.

A debate continues between professors, policy makers, and business professionals about whether all or any financial literacy education is effective and the potential alternatives to this education. Policy makers also consider what extent the government should have a role in the financial decisions of consumers. Consumer freedom of choice in making decisions must be balanced with the negative externalities that arise from poor financial decisions made by uninformed consumers, which may contribute to a recession. One proposed solution is to insert standard financial options into different markets such as housing or automobile so that financially illiterate consumers do not have to make decisions. Another possible solution is effectively teaching financial literacy in classrooms and the workplace.

Private groups, from large organizations like the National Foundation for Credit Counseling to smaller groups like Mind Your Money, aim to teach financial literacy in schools and the workplace. The non-profit National Foundation for Credit Counseling is the country’s largest financial counseling organization. Mind Your Money is a grassroots campaign based in Brooklyn, NY that provides educational financial workshops for teens and pre-teens in addition to holding forums to engage parents in the process.

Ted Gonder is Co-founder and Executive Director of Moneythink, a non-profit student movement expanding economic opportunity for urban youth through peer-mentorship and financial education.

Moneythink, founded at the University of Chicago in 2009, trains college students to teach high-school students financial literacy and entrepreneurship curricula in communities surrounding urban college campuses. The organization has chapters at universities across the country, including at the University of Florida and Columbia University. Both Mind Your Money and Moneythink Chicago focus their efforts in low-income communities. Moneythink teaches financial goal-setting through peer-to-peer mentorship. They use pop culture and current news examples to teach important financial concepts. Moneythink University of Chicago president Jennifer McPhillips believes that the organization has made an impact in Chicago.

“When we went into the school [Woodlawn Charter], the students would understand the short term benefits of money but not long-term things like interest on loans,” said McPhillips. She believes that high-schoolers’ concern with short-term gratification is at the root of their lack of financial planning.

Fellow Moneythink executive Brittany Agostino noticed, however, that the students she taught had a remarkable intuition and interest in finance. For instance, her students did not understand the differences between local and national banks, but they had a keen interest for stock portfolios and how to invest.

Moneythink, like many other financial literacy initiatives, does not have much quantitative data about their impact, but they are experimenting with different metrics. They are starting to use a pre-test and post-test in every classroom to gauge the effectiveness of their programs. A strong critique of financial education initiatives is that it is hard to measure quantifiable outcomes because student progress must be tracked throughout their adult lives.

Moneythink’s goal-setting strategy is consistent with research featured in a 2008 U.S. News and World Report’s “The Financial Literacy Crisis,” which illustrated the effectiveness of interactive and competitive programs that focus on “big-picture” concepts like goal-setting. The article also mentioned introducing these concepts at a younger age so that children can have a strong understanding of financial goal-setting as they transition into adulthood5. Business professionals such as Thomas F. Cooley, former dean of the NYU Stern School of Business, also agree that education is necessary. “Clearly, the best way to protect consumers is to educate them. As a society we don’t seem to have figured out how to do that,” he said in his article America’s Financial Illiteracy in Forbes Magazine. “It’s time we did1.”

However, Richard Thaler, a professor of behavioral science and economics at Chicago’s Booth School of Business, does not believe that financial literacy education is effective. “It’s naive to think that we could give high school students one financial course and then make them financially literate consumers,” said Thaler in “The Financial Literacy Crisis.” In the book Nudge, he proposes that consumers be automatically enrolled in budgeting and savings plans with their employers. For instance, he recommends that adults be automatically enrolled into retirement plans and supports allowing consumers to sign up for saving money each time they receive a raise5.

Research on the impact of financial literacy education in schools reveals ambiguous results. One study, conducted by Douglas Bernheim, Daniel Garret, and Dean Maki in 2001, tried to determine whether states with mandatory financial education had more financially literate people. They determined that people with mandatory financial education had larger savings rates2. Additionally, the number of people with larger savings rates from these states increased over time2. However, a study done by Shawn Cole and Gauri K. Shastry in 2008 used the same method but tracked the data over a longer time period. They found that the financial education mandates have no impact on behavior7. The contrasting results suggest that the methodology used to assess the impact of financial education can affect the results and make conclusions about its impact ambiguous.

What Money Means Seminar on how financial education can be used to enrich teaching, developed by Personal Finance Education Group and HSBC.

McPhillips acknowledges critiques about financial literacy education but believes that it can be effective if it is done the right way. “A big critique about financial literacy is that it’s hard to teach financial skills in a short period of time. But our approach is activity and action-oriented. It is not about definitions.” For example, some mentors have students keep goal journals to record financial and personal goals that are periodically checked on and discussed with a peer and mentor9.

Financial education programs implemented in the workplace are more definitively effective. For instance, a 2003 study by Bernheim and Garret found that, on average and accounting for different levels of savings, employees from firms with financial literacy education have significantly higher levels of 401(k) contributions and balances­­3. A similar study by Annamaria Lusardi in 2002 indicated that financial education had an especially significant impact at the lower end of the savings distribution5.

Some believe that public policy should be utilized to increase financial literacy among consumers. The government’s Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, founded in 2011, regulates some financial institutions, but their jurisdiction is quickly spreading to large banks and credit unions.4. There are suggestions that the CFPB should focus on financial literacy initiatives for consumers rather than regulate these institutions. They have an Office of Financial Education and have set up a website called MyMoney.gov, that provides information to consumers about managing debt and credit. Additionally, the CFPB could go one step further and provide default options for mortgages and credit consumer plans for financially illiterate consumers who are ill-informed about their financial options1.

It is unclear whether it is best to institute a financial literacy education mandate, provide financial options for the financially illiterate, or strongly encourage consumers to make their own financial plans. Research on the effect of the mandate has generated unclear results that may be influenced by the research methodology. Financial literacy education in schools gives everyone access to some basic knowledge of finance. Studies do exhibit financial literacy education’s impact in the workplace, but not everyone will have equal opportunity to this education. Government initiatives like the CFPB started by regulating financial institutions and gravitated toward promoting financial literacy, making it evident that the government is recognizing financial illiteracy as a pertinent issue in the United States.

References:

1. Cooley, Thomas. “America’s Financial Illiteracy.” [Internet] [Updated 2010] Available from: http://www.forbes.com/2010/01/12/cfpa-financial-illiteracy-credit-cards-opinions-columnists-thomas-f-cooley.html.
2. Bernheim, B. D., Garrett, M. D., and Maki, D. M. “Education and saving: The long-term effects of high school financial curriculum mandates.” 2001 Journal of Public Economics80:435-465.
3. Bernheim, B. D. and Garrett, M. D. “The Effects of Financial Education in the Workplace: Evidence from a Survey of Households.” 2003 Journal of Public Economics87:1487-1519.
4. Bishop, Martin. “The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau’s first six months: A predictor of the new agency’s growth and expansion.” [Internet] [Updated 2012] Available from: http://newsandinsight.thomsonreuters.com/Legal/Insight/2012/01_-_January/The_Consumer_Financial_Protection_Bureau%E2%80%99s_first_six_months__A_predictor_of_the_new_agency%E2%80%99s_growth_and_expansion.
5. Palmer, Kimberly. “The Financial Literacy Crisis.” [Internet] [Updated 2008] Available from: http://money.usnews.com/money/personal-finance/articles/2008/04/02/financial-literacy-101.
6. Harris Interactive Inc. Public Relations Research. “The 2011 Consumer Financial Literacy Survey Final Report.” [Internet] [Updated 2011] Available from: http://www.nfcc.org/newsroom/FinancialLiteracy/files2011/NFCC_2011Financial%20LiteracySurvey_FINALREPORT_033011.pdf.
7. Gale, William, Levine, Ruth. “Financial Literacy: What Works? How Could it be more effective?” [Internet] [Updated 2010] Available from: http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Files/rc/papers/2010/10_financial_literacy_gale_levine/10_financial_literacy_gale_levine.pdf
8. Lewin, Tamar. “College Graduates’ Debt Burden Grew, Yet Again, in 2010.” [Internet] [Updated 2011] Available from: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/03/education/average-student-loan-debt-grew-by-5-percent-in-2010.html.
9. Interview with Ms. Jennifer McPhillips and Ms. Brittany Agostino. Moneythink,  Chicago. January 30, 2012
10. Interview with Mr. Michael Herbst. Morningstar, Chicago. February 1, 2012
11. Image (CC-BY-SA): Dugdale, Dave. “Analyzing Financial Data.” [Internet] [Taken October 20, 2010] Available from: http://www.flickr.com/photos/davedugdale/5099605109/
12. Image (CC-BY): Gonder, Ted. “Abandoning Mediocrity and Seizing Opportunity.” [Internet] [Updated March 15, 2012] Available from: http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2012/03/15/abandoning-mediocrity-and-seizing-opportunity
13. Image (CC-BY-NC-ND): HSBC UK Press Office. “Trainee teachers using puppets to teach financial education.” [Internet] [Taken July 1, 2011] Available from: http://www.flickr.com/photos/hsbc_uk_press/5890232927/

Tanya Mookerji is a second-year student at the University of Chicago majoring in economics and public policy. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

But the reality proves that our food isn’t nearly as safe as we think it is. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that 48 million people contract a foodborne illness annually, and approximately 3000 of those die [1]. E. coli and Salmonella often get the most press time of the foodborne illnesses, but they aren’t the only ones that are dangerous. In spite of the technological advancement in the United States, foodborne illness, especially in beef, persists in being a problem.

In fact, as the food production industry, especially the factory farming system that produces meat, becomes more consolidated (the top four beef suppliers control 80% of the United States’ beef supply [2]) and more industrialized, it becomes easier for contaminants in food to multiply and spread. In September 2011, a Listeriosis outbreak from cantaloupe grown in Colorado infected 123 people, killed 25 and caused a miscarriage [3].The USDA cites six instances of food recalls that occurred between October 1 and October 20 alone, with reasons ranging from misbranding and undeclared allergens to E. coli and Salmonella contamination [4].

The problem, of course, is not the recalls themselves. Recalls only mean that the companies, or the regulation bodies that oversee them, are catching their mistakes. The real problem is what can happen if the companies don’t see contamination until it’s too late. The beef industry is too closely consolidated to allow for any mistakes. In 1976, there were 1350 federally inspected beef slaughterhouses in the United States, and in 1996, 22 slaughterhouses accounted for 79% of nationally slaughtered cattle [5]. That means that a mistake in one of those slaughterhouses, or in one of the top four beef suppliers, could potentially reach a massive proportion of food products.

And, according to some, a mistake is imminent. Slaughterhouse and factory conditions have become notorious. Cattle often arrive at the slaughterhouse with smears of fecal matter on their hides, and while workers are very careful to avoid letting the meat get contaminated, there is the constant danger of contact with the fecal matter that is abundant on the cows causing E. coli contamination [6]. The flow of work is so fast and the number of carcasses so high that there is a great possibility of contamination going unnoticed.

There are several different schools of thought on what to do about rampant foodborne illness. One prominent opinion is the use of modern technology and chemistry to disinfect the meat that has been contaminated by the slaughtering process. One major proponent of this solution is Beef Products Inc., a company that has capitalized on the danger of foodborne illness. It invented the process of treating the most dangerous and traditionally unusable parts of meat with ammonia to kill pathogens [7]. This mixture of ammonia and unusable meat products is then added to ground beef in hamburgers, which the company says can help kill the pathogens in the rest of the meat. This ammonia-treated material is now in about 70% of hamburgers nationwide [8]. However, the effectiveness of this procedure came under fire when a study found high levels of contamination in Beef Products Inc.’s trimmings, which were being used by school lunch organizations. Between 2005 and 2009, their product tested positive for salmonella in 36 per 1000 tests, while other school lunch suppliers averaged nine positives per 1000 tests [9].

Other common practices include irradiating meat using gamma rays, x rays, and electron beams to kill bacteria. The USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service requires that any food treated this way must be clearly labeled to increase consumer awareness, though the same standard does not apply for meat treated with ammonia [10]. The USDA also says, though, that the process is completely safe for use in food. The radiation leaves no trace, and though it doesn’t suffice as the last word on destroying pathogens, it is a start.

Another opinion, however, is that the meat production system is broken, and that these sterilization techniques are only treating the symptoms rather than the causes. With so much potential for dangerous outbreaks, some feel the factory farming system itself needs to be changed. Much of the danger occurs behind closed doors and is based on the maximization of profit and the reduction of costs. According to The New York Times, many big slaughterhouses won’t sell to grinders unless they agree not to test the meat for E. coli [11]. These kinds of dealings within the industry itself undermine efforts to keep the products safe for consumers.

Fixing this problem, therefore, would require a restructuring of the food industry itself. In order to make meat safer for consumers and less likely to contain foodborne illness, slaughterhouses and factory farms would have to be split into smaller sections, or at least have more competition in terms of smaller farms and slaughterhouses run in rural areas by families instead of corporations. As it is, economic incentives make it nearly impossible for these smaller enterprises to compete with their well-established peers, but if incentives were given for these smaller, safer, and cleaner farms and slaughterhouses, the danger would be significantly mitigated.

If this kind of restructuring is not possible, the farming and slaughtering industries must be held to a higher standard and forced to act more responsibly. Consumers must demand more accurate information about actions like infusing unusable meat parts with ammonia in hamburgers and better safety standards in these farms and slaughterhouses. Only with an economic incentive like consumer choice could these profit and efficiency-based standards be changed.

If current patterns continue, the food industry will continue to consolidate into large companies with large varieties of products. Disease spreads easiest in close proximity and large numbers, the same conditions created by large factory farms and slaughterhouses. If consumers don’t demand higher quality products with better safety measures, the industry won’t improve, and foodborne illness will continue to be a major public danger.

References

[1] “CDC – CDC and Food Safety – Food Safety.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. N.p., 15 Aug. 2011. Web. 22 Oct. 2011. <http://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/cdc-and-food-safety.html>.

[2] Food, Inc.. Dir. Robert Kenner. Perf. Eric Schlosser. Magnolia Home Entertainment, 2009. Film.

[3] “CDC – Multistate Outbreak of Listeriosis Linked to Whole Cantaloupes from Jensen Farms, Colorado – Listeriosis.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. N.p., 18 Oct. 2011. Web. 22 Oct. 2011. <http://www.cdc.gov/listeria/outbreaks/cantaloupes-jensen-farms/index.html>.

[4] “Current Recalls & Alerts (Open Federal Recall Cases for FSIS) .” USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service Home . N.p., 21 Oct. 2011. Web. 22 Oct. 2011. <http://www.fsis.usda.gov/FSIS_Recalls/Open_Federal_Cases/index.asp>.

[5] Mathews, Kenneth H. Jr., William F. Hahn, Kenneth E. Nelson, Lawrence A. Duewer, and Ronald A. Gustafson. “U.S. Beef Industry: Cattle Cycles, Price Spreads, and Packer Concentration: Beefpacker Concentration.” USDA Economic Research Service. April 1999.

[6] Moss, Michael. “The Burger That Shattered Her Life.” New York Times [New York City ] 03 Oct. 2009: n. pag. The New York Times. Web. 23 Oct. 2011.

[7] Moss, Michael. “Safety of Beef Processing Method Is Questioned.” New York Times [New York City ] 30 Dec. 2009: n. pag. The New York Times. Web. 23 Oct. 2011.

[8] Food, Inc.. Dir. Robert Kenner. Perf. Eric Schlosser. Magnolia Home Entertainment, 2009. Film.

[9] Moss, Michael. “Safety of Beef Processing Method Is Questioned.” New York Times [New York City ] 30 Dec. 2009: n. pag. The New York Times. Web. 23 Oct. 2011.

[10] “Irradiation and Food Safety.” USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service Home . United States Department of Agriculture, n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2011. <http://www.fsis.usda.gov/factsheets/Irradiation_and_Food_Safety/index.asp>.

[11] Moss, Michael. “The Burger That Shattered Her Life.” New York Times [New York City ] 03 Oct. 2009: n. pag. The New York Times. Web. 23 Oct. 2011.

Chloe Hawker is a student at Carnegie-Mellon University.  Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

In order to give a sense of scale to the issue, one could compare availability of medical care in India to that in the United States. By the most recent data, the United States has 2.672 doctors per 1,000 people, and 3.1 hospital beds per 1,000 people. India, on the other hand, has a mere 0.599 doctors and 0.9 hospital beds per 1,000 people.1 Judging from those numbers, India would need almost 2.4 million new doctors and over 2 million more hospital beds to reach the same proportions as the United States.

This shortage stems from a lack medical infrastructure and difficulty in accessing available resources, and is especially felt in rural India. In a 2008 study focusing on the Ujjain district, researchers found that about 61% (almost 1.1 million people) of that district’s population lives in what is considered rural areas, served by only 39 professionally qualified doctors. As a result, those in rural areas turn to unqualified providers that the researchers refer to as “quacks”. Due to the shortage of professionally qualified doctors, the need for any form of medical care is extremely high. This results in the presence of 1,666 of these “quacks” in the Ujjain district. The unqualified providers often seek to meet the simplest needs of the patients who come to them, which is most often alleviating symptoms enough for patients to return to work. However, these types of treatments most often either leave the problem unsolved or require further treatment at a later date. Therefore, the care delivered in rural areas is frequently either insufficient or even deleterious for the patient. This, in turn, frequently produces a skewed view of standard of medical care.2

India has recognized that the shortage stems from an insufficient medical education system. India responded by creating a sprawling system of medical education that produces 31,000 doctors each year. Even at this prodigious rate, it would take several decades to close the gap between the need and the current supply of doctors.3 However, what normally happens is that the brightest new doctors get recruited to overseas positions, most frequently in the United Kingdom. This is known as brain drain, and besides losing promising doctors, many researchers go overseas, as India has an unproductive research network which has not yet yielded a single Nobel laureate in medicine.4

India has been seeking to deal with the shortage for years by increasing the number of medical schools. Since its independence, India’s medical schools have consistently increased in number, with 86 schools in 1965 swelling to 143 schools in 1990. Between 1990 and 2009, 128 more medical schools opened, bringing the total number of schools to 271 in 2009.5This drastic increase has overwhelmed both the available teachers and the educational and medical infrastructure, creating schools that are both underequipped and understaffed. Many lack dormitories and cafeterias for students, and some lack labs for complex procedures.

These schools are supposed to be overseen by the Medical Counsel of India (MCI), which is responsible for ensuring the quality of both the infrastructure and the professors at India’s medical institutes. However, many institutions do not meet the standards enumerated by the counsel, and therefore have developed a process of window dressing, where schools share equipment or professors during inspections in order to give the impression of compliance. There have been accounts of prestigious colleges adding names of non-existent professors to their lists. The scramble for all these medical schools to meet MCI requirements, and to even keep these schools running, creates a gargantuan demand for competent professors.5 Since demand is high, it is difficult for schools to retain faculty over the long term, which creates a lack of continuity in both the school’s practices and its policy.

The plethora of new and underequipped medical schools will create more doctors and healthcare professionals on paper, but will lower the quality of the doctors produced, further exacerbating the preexisting shortage. So, while attempting to alleviate a shortage of doctors, India has managed to create a completely new crisis on top of the preexisting one. In this case, the response could alleviate the symptoms but is creating a whole new set of additional problems.

References

1. “CIA World Factbook,” Central Intelligence Agency, Accessed 1/25/2012
2. Katrak, Homi. “Measuring the shortage of medical practitioners in rural and urban areas in developing countries: a simple framework and simulation exercises with data from India,” The International Journal of Health Planning and Management, No. 23 (2008): 93-105.
3. Yathish, TR. “How to Strengthen and Reform Indian Medical Education System: Is Nationalization the Only Answer?” Online J Health Allied Scs. 2009;8(4):1 http://www.ojhas.org/issue32/2009-4-1.htm
4. Tulenko, Kate. “Countries Without Doctors?” Foreign Policy, June 2010. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/06/11/countries_without_doctors
5. Deshpande Srinivas Ramachandra & Deshpande-Naik Gayathree Srinivas. Crass commercialization and corruption of the Indian medical education system and the resultant decay of the Indian Health Education in the last two decades. A case for urgent international review and monitoring.” Electronic Pysicician 2009, 1:9-16, http://www.ephysician.ir/2009/9-16.pdf
6. Image: Witlin, Ray. “World Bank: Medical Checkup.” Flickr, last modified January 7, 2008, http://www.flickr.com/photos/worldbank/2182854821/

Ted Gannett is a first-year student at the University of Chicago majoring in Chemistry and minoring in East Asian Languages and Civilizations. He also volunteers with Health Leads Chicago, a volunteer organization that works in several Chicago hospitals. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.