A high concentration of cationic peptides destroying the integrity of a bacterial membrane

The antibiotic is a cornerstone of today’s medical treatment, but with the increasing rate of bacteria that are steadily growing impervious to these chemical treatments, should we consider the other options as valid alternatives? [1]. Starting in the 1920’s with the discovery of penicillin, a surge of antibiotic discovery enveloped the scientific world as scientists efficiently developed new and effective treatments [2]. With such widespread use of antibiotics, bacteria inevitably developed resistance to new chemicals. Up until the 1980’s, scientists were able to combat these adaptations, but innovation slowed immensely due to scientific, economic, and political limitations [2]. Antibiotic-resistance has grown exponentially ever since [2]. Utilization of cationic peptides, bacteriophages, and probiotics are three effective and innovative forms of therapy that society must capitalize on in light of antibiotics’ inevitable decline [1].

The use of cationic peptides is one very effective option in dealing with bacterial infection. These short peptides consisting of fifteen to fifty amino acids function by distorting the membranes and even directly attacking major components within the cytoplasm [4]. A cationic peptide first compromises the outer membrane in bacteria by displacing magnesium ions; this process makes the cell negatively-charged [5]. The cationic peptide attracts the now negatively-charged membrane, and in the process distorts the membrane and permeates across [5]. Next, the polymer becomes parallel to the membrane and folds into the membrane-bound structures [5]. This positioning allows the peptide to create channels that push impurities into the bacterium, break down the membrane’s integrity completely, or even attack specific compounds within the cell [4].

A major benefit of peptide technology is the specificity with which these chemicals operate when combined with one another. The success of peptide specificity is evident in experiments with rabbits’ joints, wherein specific bacteria that cause various forms of synovitis (inflammation of joint lining) were eradicated when the two peptides HAP-1 and (KLAK)₂ were introduced [6]. Also cationic peptides derived from existing tumor suppressor genes like p16 have been shown to limit tumor growth in lab-rat models when they are merged with atennapedia peptides, proteins that control the formation of bodily structures [6].

The cost of peptide technology is currently what prevents this innovation from cementing itself as a reliable alternative [4]. Cationic peptides do cost a considerable amount of money to synthesize and utilize, but over time, with new research and innovations in the field, the price of this alternative will surely decrease much in the same way antibiotics did after their inception [1].

Another potential alternative to antibiotic treatment is the employment of probiotics. Essentially, probiotics are friendly bacteria that benefit the host [3]. Just a few of the many benefits that probiotics provide are promoting the absorption and production of vitamins and enabling efficient inflammatory responses [8]. Lactobacillus acidophilus is a common probiotic already present the bodies of yogurt consumers; the power and duration of the benefits of consuming yogurt are well documented and demonstrate that probiotics are an efficient and non-toxic method for promoting good health and preventing disease [8].

Studies have revealed that intentionally injecting probiotics into a biological system produces results that are exponentially larger and rival the protection offered by antibiotics [7]. In an aquaculture study in Nigeria, when various strains of probiotics were injected into organisms, the microbes produced inhibitors that destroyed pathogens and crowded out invading bacteria as well [8]. Probiotics take resources from pathogens and provide protection, all the while promoting growth throughout the entire body, especially the intestinal tract. Probiotics effectively address the concern of antibiotic resistance as pathogen adaptation is ineffective; various trials indicate that overtime, the invading bacteria in the organism was unable to change and respond to the living probiotics [1]. They are also cost-effective due to their availability in the environment [1]. Unlike antibiotics, which sometimes require toxins to eradicate bacteria, probiotics provide sustained treatment over a long period of time and without the use of any toxic elements [7]. In the near future, probiotics can be seen as a viable source for treatment against malignant bacteria so long as research in the field develops to encompass more beneficial strains.

While probiotics take a more indirect approach to eradicating disease, bacteriophage therapy poses a more straightforward solution that also has the potential to become more widespread in due time [9]. Bacteriophage therapy uses specific viruses that infect bacteria directly. These phage particles are narrow spectrum agents —that is, they possess the mechanism to infect specific strains of bacteria through their inherent properties, as well as to manipulate DNA [3]. Phages enter a cell, reproduce within the bacterium, and eventually accumulate and burst the cell open [9].

The study of phage therapy began around the same time as antibiotics in the 1930’s and 40’s. Early experiments suggested that antibiotics were more reliable and consistent when compared to phage therapy’s results [10]. As time progressed, bacteriophage therapy became a prime example of how time allocated to research can yield amazing new findings and innovation [10]. Present findings demonstrate many benefits of bacteriophage therapy that antibiotics simply do not possess. Bacteriophage therapy is very cost effective as phages are everywhere in the environment and simple to obtain. The viruses only destroy specific targets — much like peptides — yet do not harm the beneficiary bacteria or microorganisms [9]. Also, phage therapy is long-lasting, as the virus is able to remain inside the organism and destroy invaiding bacteria over an extended period of time [1]. Bacteriophage therapy can pose some problems if viruses are not purified properly, but if research is increased and thoroughness is maintained, this treatment will become a new standard as antibiotics’ prevalence deteriorates [10].

The societal implications of these new forms of therapy are essential to understanding the need to resort to innovative alternatives. “At a time when the frequency of infections caused by antibiotic- resistant bacteria is rising sharply, the pool of antibiotics in development by drug companies is drying up,” states Michael A. Schmidt, a professor at Columbia University Medical Center [11]. The FDA has only approved an average of 3 antibiotics per year from 1988 to 1992 and this number has fallen to one approval per year since 2003. The lack of new antibiotics during the time that they are needed the most is due to the shift in focus of these pharmaceutical companies. They are focusing on large markets in the drug industry that correlate with chronic conditions (diabetes, depression, arthritis) that will make them a large sum of money from the necessary long-term therapy [11].  Alternatives for antibiotics should be the focus of the drug companies as the threat of antibiotic-resistance is growing exponentially each day.

The uses of peptides, probiotics, and bacteriophages are three very realistic methods that have the potential to be leaders in the race for new disease treatments, if enough time is allocated for their development. Their efficiency and realistic cost are reasons why these alternatives should be the focus of modern medicine’s focus. The same invigoration and passion for discovery that was present during the foundation of antibiotic research is very much needed today if society is ever going to battle the problem of finding new forms of therapy to replace the ill-fated antibiotics [2]. A new era of treatments is on the horizon and must be ushered from experimental procedures to societal standards to preserve the future of the globe’s healthcare system [3].

References

1. Joerger RD. Alternatives to antibiotics: bacteriocins, antimicrobial peptides and bacteriophages. Poultry Science. 2002 Nov 11;82:640-647
2. Interlandi J. Are we running out of antibiotics?. Newsweek. 2010 Dec 13; 156(24):42
3. Kardar SS. Antibiotic Resistance: New Approaches to a Historical Problem [Internet]. Emory University, American Institute of Biological Sciences; 2005 March [updated 2008 Feb]. Available from: http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/kardar.html
4. Wilcox S. The new antimicrobials: Cationic peptides. BTJ. 2004 Fall; 2(1):88-91
5. Bell TW. Carriers  and  channels: Current  progress  and  future  prospects. CO Chemical  Biology. 1998; 2:711-716
6. Langel U. Handbook of cell-penetrating peptides. Oxford: CRC Press; c2007. 600 p.
7. Chukeatirot E. Potential use of probiotics. Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. 2003 Mar-Apr;25(2):276-282.
8. Kondadacha OD, Adikwu IA, Okaeme AN, Atiribom RY, Mohammed A,  Musa YM. The role of probiotics in aquaculture in nigeria: A review. Wilolud Journals. 2011 Jan;5(1):8-15.
9. Marsa L. Enlisting viruses to battle bacteria. Los Angeles Times. 2003 Mar 31:F3.
10. Ho K. Bacteriophage therapy for bacterial infections: Rekindling a memory from the pre-antibiotics era. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. 2001 Jan 16;44(1):253-255, 513.
11. Schmidt MA Beyond Antibiotics: Strategies for Living in a World of Emerging Infections and Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books; 2009.
12. Sullivan JM. R.E.W. Hancock Laboratory – Peptides. [homepage on the Internet]. 2000 [cited 2012 Jan 19]. Available from: University of British Coloumbia, R.E.W. Hancock Laboratory Web site: http://www.cmdr.ubc.ca/peptide2.jpg

Sartajdeep Kahlon is a student at The Harker School in California, a part of The Triple Helix high school chapter program. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook

The choice of words may at first glance be misleading. For several years now, an increasing number of hospitals – including University Hospital in Newark, NJ, Georgetown University Hospital in Washington, DC, and Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia, PA – have been implementing medical techniques and protocols that are geared towards minimizing and even eliminating the need for foreign blood transfusions before, during, and after elective surgical procedures. While this option has at first been available only to patients who decline blood transfusions for religious reasons (e.g., Jehovah’s Witness), hospitals are gradually making it accessible to everyone who is interested. Generally speaking, the necessity for blood transfusion during or after surgery is perpetuated by factors such as old age (65+ years), long duration of operation (300+ minutes), massive blood loss (1.000+ mL), and anemia (the deficiency of healthy red blood cells, which is associated with a ratio of less than 10 Hb/dl) [1]. Although the practice of blood transfusion dates back to centuries ago and has been improved over the last decades, there are still some immediate risks, which range from minimal to fatal.

General Risks of Blood Transfusion

As medicine became more evidence-based and empirical, a number of retrospective observational studies have shown a correlation between transfusions and adverse outcomes in almost all surgical fields and critical care [2]. One risk factor lies in viral and disease transmissions, the most notable being HIV, Human Lymphocytotrophic Virus, Hepatitis B and C, West Nile Virus, and Sepsis. The potential for contracting one of these diseases during a blood transfusion is minimal – statistical ratios range from 1:205,000 to 1:3,000,000 – but nonetheless present [3]. According to some reports, the danger of disease transmission during blood transfusion becomes higher when patients have particular medical conditions. For instance, a twofold infection risk and a fivefold risk of death have been found in cardiac patients [2, 5]. Similar trends have been documented in patients with gastric cancer, where disease-specific and overall survival rates were observed to be lower for transfused than for non-transfused patients [6].

Furthermore, an array of transfusion reactions has been documented [4, 5]:

• Allergic reactions / hives: this occurs especially when the donor’s and the patient’s blood type do not match
• TRALI (Transfusion-Related Acute Lung Injury): lung damage occurs and makes breathing difficult
• Iron overload: too much iron in the blood, which occurs especially after receiving multiple blood transfusions; may lead to liver and heart damage
• Acute or delayed immune hemolytic reaction: an immune response to transfused red blood cells; may cause kidney damage
• TA-GVHD (Transfusion-Associated Graft-Versus-Host Disease): transfused white blood cells attack the patient’s cells; rare but often fatal

Transfusion reactions are common complications of blood transfusion [6]. Further reactions include hypothermia, tachycardia, anaphylactic shock, and many others. Since transfusions are mainly needed for heavily invasive surgeries that involve a sufficient amount of blood loss (and subsequent immune system deficiency and general physical weakness), all of the above issues are even more detrimental to the patient than usual. A panel of experts gathered at the International Consensus Conference on Transfusion and Outcomes (ICCTO) in April 2009 and reviewed 555 separately commissioned studies that gave insights into the benefits and deficits of transfusions. Almost all of these reports found that transfusions have little benefit for the patient and in fact saw a link between transfusions and increased complications ranging from heart attack to death [6].

Along with these medical and physiological dangers, the psychological component of medical treatment should be noted as well. In general, the patient’s outlook on his / her recovery progress (i.e., whether the patient is optimistic or pessimistic) is said to affect the actual course and speediness of treatment. In several cases, patients have reported to feel sicker than they actually are when receiving a blood transfusion – this appears to be due to a social stigmatization of transfusions in general, labeling them as something given only to the tremendously unhealthy. In other words, it appears that transfusions may skew the patient’s perception of his or her condition and therefore have the potential of negatively affecting treatment progress even beyond the physical risks listed above.

Methods Used Before, During, and After ‘Bloodless’ Surgery

There is a general consensus in the medical community that blood transfusions should be given as a last resort. With that said, it seems plausible and beneficial to engage the patient in pre- and post-operative measures that will minimize the chance of having to receive a blood transfusion. As a result, hospitals are more actively advertising it and educating their patients. Methods include injections of recombinant erythroprotein (r-Hu-EPO) and iron to stimulate the production of red blood cells [7, 8]. This can be done before, during, and after surgery. Also, new laboratory blood testing techniques allow for precise measurements even with small amounts of blood, which allows for smaller samples to be drawn from the patient. Surgical techniques and instrumentation have also improved: with minimally invasive procedures, cautious operation by the surgeon, and instruments such as the argon beam coagulator (a scalpel that has a blood-clotting effect the instant it begins to cut), blood loss during surgery can be minimized substantially. Along with that, simple measures such as using warming blankets during surgery tend to result in less bleeding as well. Anesthetic techniques (e.g., lowering the blood pressure) have similar effects [9]. If the surgery is planned weeks ahead of time, one can also acquire a large sample of the patient’s own blood, store it, and re-infuse it during or after surgery (this is called an autologous blood product) [7, 8]. The benefits of these methods and more ways of reducing the need for blood transfusion in hospitalized patients include reductions of recovery time, hospital stay, and cost and complications [10]. As Dr. Zawadsky further noted, it also makes surgery more accessible to people who are reluctant to receive blood transfusion due to personal preference or religious beliefs. Most crucially, however, it eliminates most (if not all) of the health risks that have been linked to transfusions, making ‘bloodless’ surgery an important innovation in medicine with relevant social and health implications. Nevertheless, the use of blood transfusions will most likely not be eliminated altogether in the near future as it will still be the primary choice for acute emergencies where that involve severe blood loss. But for virtually any elective, pre-planned surgery, ‘bloodless’ appears to be the new way to go.

References

[1] Ojima, Toshiyasu, Makoto Iwahashi, Mikihito Nakamori, Masaki Nakamura, Teiji Naka, Masahiro Katsuda, Takeshi Iida, Keiji Hayata, et al. “Association of Allogeneic Blood Transfusions and Long-Term Survival of Patients with Gastric Cancer after Curative Gastrectomy.” Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract. 13.10 (2009): 1821-30. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. <http://www.springerlink.com/content/h17457v179313556/>.

[2] Murphy, Gavin J. “Does blood transfusion harm cardiac surgery patients?.” BMC Medicine. 7.38 (2009): n. page. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. <http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/7/38>.

[3] “Blood transfusion: Risks.” Mayo Clinic. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER), 21 Jan 2010. Web. 2 Dec 2011. <http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/blood-transfusion/MY01054/DSECTION=risks>.

[4] Mark Zawadsky. Should I be concerned about receiving a blood transfusion?. 2010. Video. Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC. Web. 3 Dec 2011. < http://media.georgetownuniversityhospital.org/#/video/Bloodless%20Medicine%20and%20Surgery%20Program/Dr.%20Mark%20Zawadsky%20Question%2009/>.

[5] Orr, Leslie. “Blood Transfusion Study: Less is More.” University of Rochester: Medical Center. 05 Aug 2009: n. page. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. <http://www.urmc.rochester.edu/news/story/index.cfm?id=2571>.

[6] Harris, Tamara, Danford Soto, and David Carroll. “Is It Safer to Have Bloodless Surgery?.” MyBlood. MyBlood, n.d. Web. 3 Dec 2011. <http://www.mybloodsite.com/content/it-safer-have-bloodless-surgery>.

[7] “Alternatives to Transfusion.” The University Hospital: University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (UMDNJ). The University Hospital, n.d. Web. 5 Dec 2011. <http://www.theuniversityhospital.com/bloodless/html/bloodlessterms/alternatives.htm>.

[8] Raznik, Sabne. “Techniques of Bloodless Surgery.” Yahoo! Voices. Yahoo! Inc., 15 Jul 2009. Web. 5 Dec 2011. <http://voices.yahoo.com/techniques-bloodless-surgery-3810662.html>.

[9] Mark Zawadsky. How do you practice bloodless surgery bloodless medicine with surgery, preparation for surgery and after surgery? 2010. Video. Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC. Web. 3 Dec 2011. < http://media.georgetownuniversityhospital.org/#/video/Bloodless%20Medicine%20and%20Surgery%20Program/Dr.%20Mark%20Zawadsky%20Question%2006/>.

[10] “‘Bloodless’ surgery avoids risks of transfusion.” Health Care on MSNBC.com. The Associated Press, 24 Apr 2006. Web. 5 Dec 2011. <http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12466831/ns/health-health_care/t/bloodless-surgery-avoids-risks-transfusion/

[11] Urine bag and blood bag . 2009. Photograph. Shanghai Medcines & Health Products Import & Export Corporation, Shanghai. Web. 5 Dec 2011. <http://www.shmeheco.net/urine bag and blood bag.html>.

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There’s a motto in emergency medical services (EMS) that one learns during his first days of training, “no airway, no patient.” Paramedics are trained in advanced pre-hospital medicine including advanced airway management techniques. One of the most notorious of these techniques is the endotracheal intubation (ETI), a technique in which the paramedic inserts a tube down a patient’s throat in order to use it as an airway adjunct. The use of ETIs “in field” (outside of hospitals) has come under heavy criticism given the less than stellar statistics its use has produced. Many argue that paramedics performing ETIs actually harm the patient, while others support the idea that paramedic ETIs save numerous patients who would have otherwise died (JEMS 2). The debate is of course justified; patients deserve the best treatment possible with the least risk associated with it.

Leave it to the Doctors

Mounting data seems to support the removal of ETI privileges from paramedics. Multiple studies conducted in both public and private EMS systems concluded that paramedic ETIs have no effect on patient survival rates (Gausche et al. 1). Shockingly, in a study conducted by Dr. Henry Wang, the use of an ETI actually increased the risk of death and led to negative neurological outcomes (Wang 1). In a survey of studies conducted by Wang, he concluded that nearly 1 in 5 patients has been exposed to an error in tube placement, ranging from incomplete insertion of tubes to esophageal damage as a result of forcing the tube in (Wang “Paramedic”). Critics also point out that paramedics will often neglect other treatments in order to perform an ETI. Just one example of this is the interruption of chest compressions during CPR. In a study published in the Annals of Emergency Medicine, the median interruption time lasted 46.5 seconds and was repeated an average of two times due to a failed intubation attempt (Wang 645). Interruption of CPR for such an extended period of time is less than salubrious for a patient in cardiac arrest given one should not stop compressions for more than 5-10 seconds. Furthermore, paramedics are the least trained of all clinicians authorized to perform ETIs. Studies have shown experience in performing ETIs has a direct influence on success rates (Warner et al. 103). Moreover, the minimum number of intubations performed on humans for a paramedic to be eligible to perform ETI on the field is five (Wang “Paramedic”).  Compared to an emergency medicine resident’s 35 and anesthesia resident’s 57, one can clearly see a discrepancy of standards in medical training. In short, the present evidence points towards revoking ETI privileges from paramedics, however, one must also consider the data in support of paramedic ETIs.

Keep it in the Field

Those in support of in field ETIs quickly point to multiple flaws in their critics’ data and work to provide context to both the data and the practical applications of ETIs. A common flaw found in the studies opposing the use of paramedic ETIs is the alternative treatment to which the ETIs are compared to. Most commonly, the researchers compare ETIs to the use of a bag-valve mask (BVM). A BVM, a common breathing assistance device, is simply a tool which allows clinicians to breathe for the patient without an invasive procedure. This basic life support treatment does not give full context to the patient’s condition, given a BVM is used in a variety of medical situations (JEMS 4). Furthermore, many recent studies have negated many findings that favor removing ETIs from the field. One example is a 2003 article published in The Journal of Emergency Medicine which indicates that previous paramedic experience has little to no effect on ETI success rates, a stark contrast to the talking point advanced by critics (Garza et al. 251). Yet, it is most important to provide context to the studies. Many of the studies do not take into account the chaotic environment paramedics often work in. To perform an intricate procedure in an operating room is a task in itself, let alone if one must do it inside of a motor vehicle that has been involved in a collision.

Compromise?

Clearly both sides present interesting arguments concerning the use of ETIs in field. Like with most critical issues, compromise has slated as the best solution. Further training is needed to assure the best patient care possible. This requires efforts from both paramedic students and the hospitals in which they train. The hospitals must be willing to open their doors to more students and allow them to perform ETIs in multiple clinical settings. The students, of course, must be willing to put in extra time at the hospitals and be constantly willing to learn from their mentors. Continuing Medical Education (CME) classes need to also undergo revitalization given that many paramedics do not perform ETIs frequently in field. More frequent CMEs would keep paramedics up to date on ETI techniques and science. In addition to more training, paramedics should also be taught the importance of alternative airway devices such as King airways and Combitubes. According to Wang, these devices are often less invasive than ETIs and provide sufficient airway maintenance (“Paramedic”).

Conclusions

With these compromises in mind, the debate between in field ETI use shines a light on multiple overarching facets in emergency medicine. There is a common misconception that more paramedics in an EMS system will lead to better care. However, larger amounts of paramedics make it difficult to reviewing their effectiveness and to provide sufficient CME classes. Additionally, keeping medicine simple is often the best tactic in the field. EMTs offer basic medical care without extensive training and do not perform invasive procedures that are often plagued with mistakes. Finally, the attention given to ETIs should also be extended to many procedures in emergency medicine. Evidence based medicine and clinical reviews should extend to all practitioners and their techniques, regardless of training or specialty. In the end, what matters most is that medicine is held to the highest standards. The debate of in field ETIs should serve as just one example of medicine being put under the microscope.

References

“Experts Debate Paramedic Intubation.” Journal of Emergency Medical Services (JEMS), 2010. Web. 30 June 2010.

Garza, Alex, et al. “Effect of Paramedic Experience on Orotracheal Intubation Success Rates.” The Journal of Emergency Medicine 25.3 (2003): 251. Web. 18 Nov. 2011

Gauche, Marianne, et al. “Effect of Out-of-Hospital Pediatric Endotracheal Intubation on Survival and Neurological Outcome.” Journal of the American Medical Society 283.6 (2000): 783-790. Web. 18 Nov. 2011.

Wang, Henry. “Paramedic Endotracheal Intubation and Health Services Research.” The University of Alabama at Birmingham, n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2011.

Wang, Henry, et al. “Interruptions in Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation from Paramedic Endotracheal Intubation.” Annals of Emergency Med. 54.5 (2009): 645-652.

Warner, Keir, et al. “Paramedic Training for Proficient Prehospital Endotracheal Intubation.” Prehospital Emergency Care 14.1 (2010): 1. Web. 18 Nov. 2011.

Picture: http://medicmadness.com/files/2009/12/IntubationCurrent2_tcm16-210658.jpg

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From deep-sea hydrothermal vents to our own gastrointestinal biomes, bacteria that convert hydrogen to energy are a crucial and fascinating component of microbial ecosystems. Their hydrogen consumption may hold the key to explaining why certain animals are able to flourish several kilometers beneath the sea and how human pathogens can survive in our gastrointestinal tracts to cause disease and, potentially, even cancers.

When most people think of hydrogen as an energy source, they probably picture biofuel production for sustainable energy; but bacteria have beaten us to it, using hydrogen to satisfy their own energy needs. Deep-sea hydrothermal vents, first discovered in 1977, contain mollusks coated by fluids replete with hydrogen and an internal symbiotic population of bacteria that consume hydrogen. Such bacteria are formally included in the category of lithotrophs, also called autotrophs, organisms that use carbon dioxide as a carbon source and utilize inorganic materials such as hydrogen for energy. Thanks to hydrothermal vents, hydrogen has become the first chemical energy source of symbiotic relationships between animals and microorganisms to be discovered in 25 years, a discovery that carries critical implications for our internal ecosystem as well.

Hydrothermal vents offer a mine of energy: fluids coursing through the vents carry compounds rich in electrons and these are transported like the current in a battery. Wildlife on the ocean floor use the energy to build an ecosystem in this seemingly inhospitable environment. Most fauna on the ocean floor, however, lack oral cavities or the internal metabolic means to utilize the energy flow, requiring symbiotic microbes to play a crucial role. Though the bacteria do not literally breathe in hydrogen, they ingest it to generate energy for themselves and their sea floor hosts. Hydrogen in this environment is abundant from reactions between seawater and crustal rocks.

Peterson et al. determined that bacteria using the previously known energy sources in hydrothermal vents, hydrogen sulfide and methane, are also capable of consuming hydrogen. They observed that bacteria inside mussels fixed carbon dioxide by using hydrogen as an electron donor for an energy source at a rate comparable to using methane or sulfide for energy. The team further discovered a critical gene, hupL, which encodes a portion of hydrogenase, the enzyme that allows for oxidation of hydrogen. The gene is found on a Bathymodiolus mussel DNA fragment that includes the genes necessary for oxidation of sulfide. DNA of the tubeworm Riftia pachyptila and of the shrimp Rimicaris exoculata also contains hupL. While certain microbes only synthesize hydrogenase if exposed to hydrogen, others always maintain the enzyme in low levels that increase if more hydrogen is available. Regardless, hydrogen utilization has been observed to increase when these bacteria are exposed to higher levels of hydrogen.

Why use hydrogen?

Figure 1. A hydrothermal vent on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, discovered by scientists from the MARUM Center for Marine Environmental Sciences and the Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology. Image from the University of Bremen, MARUM Center for Marine Environmental Sciences.

The selection of hydrogen for energy use at first appears extraordinary considering the availability of many other possible fuel sources including ammonium, ferrous iron, and manganese (II), all of which are utilized by other documented vent microorganisms. This phenomenon may be explained by the high energy yield derived from hydrogen as opposed to other sources. For example, aerobic hydrogen respiration in the hydrogen-rich Logatchev vent field can produce as much as seven times more energy per kilogram of fluid than methane oxidation and 18 times more energy than sulfide oxidation. 

To date, the highest concentration of hydrogen discovered in a hydrothermal vent is located in the Logatchev vent field on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Figure 1). Bathymodiolus puteoserpentis mussels are the most prolific of the macrofauna in Logatchev, host to sulfide and methane oxidizers in their gills.

Hydrogen uptake by bacteria is not limited to vents abounding with hydrogen, however. For instance, Comfortless Cove and Lilliput, vent fields on the southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are significantly lower in hydrogen concentration than Logatchev. Peterson et al. illustrated that in spite of lower hydrogen levels, Bathymodiolus mussel species were still capable of hydrogen intake, albeit at rates 20 to 30 times less than those recorded by Logatchev mussels. Yet, when gill tissues from each vent site were exposed to more hydrogen, all increased hydrogen ingestion; hence, as previously discussed, higher hydrogen concentrations correlate with great consumption.

Where are they usually found?

Given the prevalence of animal-microbe symbiotic relationships like those within Bathymodiolus puteoserpentis, other such symbioses are expected to be found in the near future. Peterson et al. uncovered indications of a symbiotic relationship in Rimicaris exoculata shrimp in hydrothermal vents that may also utilize hydrogen for energy.

On average, hydrothermal vents are located two kilometers deep or more below the ocean surface. Due to the depth and highly volatile physical and chemical conditions of vents, scientists have only been able to obtain samples using submersibles, which transport researchers to the ocean floor, and robots operated remotely. Though the majority of hydrogen bacteria research has focused on deep-sea vents given recent discoveries, hydrogen may also be an energy source for bacteria with immediate effects on the human population.

Figure 2. Helicobacter pylori invading the mucous layer of the human gastrointestinal tract. Image from Davidson College.

Why should we care?

The knowledge that some bacteria employ hydrogen to produce energy is only the beginning of the story. Most importantly for humans, hydrogen bacteria may have significant health implications. Like seabed fauna, we too have an entire ecosystem of bacteria within our bodies but, unlike vent mollusks, we do not have a symbiotic relationship with the hydrogen bacteria present in our system. Hydrogen appears to be a virulence factor for the pathogenic bacteria Helicobacter pylori, which causes gastritis and peptic ulcers and has been associated with certain kinds of gastric cancers. Hydrogen is excreted in rodent and human gastrointestinal tracts, and scientists have recently established that multiple Helicobacter species, including H. pylori, living in human and animal tracts are able to utilize hydrogen for energy. Particularly since neither humans nor animals can use this hydrogen, it provides an energy supply to pathogens living in low-energy environments like our gastrointestinal mucous membranes (Figure 2). Given that it remains uncertain which energy sources are used by pathogens after invading their host, hydrogen use may prove an invaluable means of understanding how certain pathogens flourish inside their human hosts. With greater understanding of these mechanisms, we will be better equipped to combat pathogens responsible for human diseases, some of which are related to cancers.

Future research needs to investigate which microbes consume hydrogen and to what degree. Additionally, their biology and environment must be considered more to fully understand when and how frequently hydrogen is used in their respective ecosystems, particularly that most extraordinary microscopic ecosystem of all: the human body.

Further Reading:

Benoit, Stéphane L. and Robert J. Maier. “Hydrogen and Nickel Metabolism in Helicobacter Species.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1125 (2008): 242-251.

Borowski, Christian et al. “Hydrogen is an energy source for endosymbiotic bacteriaof the vent mussel Bathymodiolus puteoserpentis.” Geophysical Research Abstracts 10 (2008).

Olson, Jonathan W. and Robert J. Maier. “Molecular hydrogen as an energy source for Helicobacter pylori.” Science 298.5599 (2002): 1788-1790.

Orphan, Victoria J. and Tori M. Hoehler. “Hydrogen for dinner.” Nature 476 (2011): 154-155.

Peterson, Jillian M. et al. “Hydrogen is an energy source for hydrothermal ventsymbiosis.” Nature 476 (2011): 176-180.

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At the Harry Potter theme park in Orlando, performers portray French witches from the Beauxbatons Academy of Magic.

Universal Studios announced in early December its plans to add a Harry Potter section to its Los Angeles theme park, in a move that further strengthens the position of J.K. Rowling’s franchise worldwide. The park will supplement and likely resemble the one in Orlando, which features a replica of Hogwarts Castle, roller coaster rides, and Harry Potter-themed restaurants.1

Perhaps the more globally relevant news is speculation that NBCUniversal is considering opening up Harry Potter attractions at its theme parks in Japan, Singapore, and Spain.1 These parks are not likely to be designed in the same way as the Los Angeles or Orlando attractions, but rather will be defined by their local communities’ cultures and reactions to Rowling’s work. Due to the nature of the translations of the text from English to other languages, such differences in meaning and reception are not trivial. Analyzing the many ways through which Harry Potter’s influence has expanded to locations throughout the world, including theme parks, gives us a unique perspective on foreign cultures and international relations.

The books have broken sales records around the world, with over 450 million copies translated into 70 languages.2 But despite this, can we refer to the Harry Potter series as a truly “global” phenomenon? Jackson and Mandaville don’t think so, opting instead to refer to it as a “glocal” franchise, the product of global distribution and translation into local contexts. Translators must decide whether they will closely follow the original text or take liberties so that the translated texts are more closely targeted to the intended audience. Every translation inevitably contains a balance of these two extremes, such that the translated text acquires a meaning that is unique to its local culture. The Simplified Chinese translation turns the broom-mounted sport of Quidditch to baseball, due to baseball’s popularity in Taiwan. The Hindi translator had a hard time describing the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, which is based on the English boarding school system. And even though it is not a translation to a foreign language, the American edition features alterations, such as changing the title from “Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone” to “Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone”, that some say threaten to compromise the “British-ness” of Rowling’s work.3

Despite its worldwide geographic reach, the Harry Potter experience has been “fractured” through local translation. But there are also cases in which the series is received differently, not through differences in translation, but rather through differences in local culture. In analyzing Harry Potter’s reception in Sweden and Turkey, Towns and Rumelili found that the “foreignness” of the series, viewed in relation to locally familiar phenomena, allows for an analysis of the relationship between national identities. In Sweden, the series is viewed as rooted in Western culture, which Swedish readers can relate to. However, certain aspects of the book, particularly class hierarchy and male dominance, are seen as depictions of “British conservatism” and foreign to Sweden’s more egalitarian society. In Turkey, Harry Potter is both admired and mocked, depending on which aspects of the Western world are viewed as favorable or unfavorable. In contrast to the rest of the Middle East, Turkey is often seen as more modern and Western, but Turkey itself is not always considered to be part of the West. As such, “The foreignness of Harry Potter is negated and de-emphasized when Turkey is to be depicted as Western, and pronounced when the West is to be criticized and ridiculed.”4

Harry Potter books on sale in Beijing

Another study, however, found that while there are instances of diverging receptions in different nations, the overall fandom to the series is actually quite similar. Schmid and Klimmt, for example, found that Mexican fans were more likely than German fans to find the Harry Potter character to be sociable.  Mexico has a more “collectivistic” culture than Germany’s “individualistic” culture, they say. The collectivist fans from Mexico relate to the character in ways that are compatible with their own culture’s norms, including sociability. At the same time, however, Schmid and Klimmt note that the development of their fandom and parasocial (or one-sided) relationships (PSRs) with the series were affected by similar factors, such as social attraction.5

Consumers can develop their relationship with the series through various means. While most research on Harry Potter and its international reception focuses on the printed books, the broader pop culture has experienced PSRs developed with television personalities, celebrities, and professional athletes. For fantasy franchises like Harry Potter, theme parks undoubtedly play a significant role in the formation of PSRs, and it’s up to NBCUniversal to understand the ways their products are received by various communities. Failure to do so could compromise the potential to reap profits.

Perhaps NBCUniversal has a lot to learn from its rival, Walt Disney. With theme parks and resorts in Anaheim, Orlando, Tokyo, Paris, Hong Kong, and Shanghai, Disney has had to cater to diverse cultures while globally marketing the brand. Indeed, such “glocalization” has not taken place without its difficulties, particularly with respect to Disneyland Paris. Originally named Euro Disney Resort when it opened in 1992, the park lost nearly $1 billion in its first 18 months of operation. The losses were attributed to Disney’s inadequate understanding of Europeans’ vacation habits in contrast to American culture, along with a park design that did not sufficiently satisfy the demands of the Parisian market. Despite a growing movement among other exporting firms towards adapting products to the customs of foreign consumers, Euro Disney retained American standards of dress, behavior, and morality. It certainly does not help that the French generally resent American influences and may have regarded Euro Disney as a potential encroachment upon French culture.6

With these lessons in mind, NBCUniversal could be better informed as it considers expanding its Harry Potter attractions to its non-US theme parks. It faces the challenge of tailoring its park designs to the local culture, while at the same time maintaining a cohesive worldwide image of the series. Fortunately, studies have shown that consumers spanning various cultures and age groups are already attracted to Harry Potter, making the process of “glocalization” much easier. Moreover, Harry Potter’s British origins reduce the risk of being perceived as a symbol of purely American influence.

References

1. Lauren A.E. Schuker, “Second ‘Harry Potter’ Park Planned,” The Wall Street Journal, December 1, 2011
2. “Harry Potter,” The New York Times, last modified July 18, 2011, http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/complete_coverage/harry_potter/index.html
3. Patrick Thaddeus Jackson and Peter Mandaville, “Glocal Hero: Harry Potter Abroad,” in Harry Potter and International Relations, ed. Daniel H. Nexon and Iver B. Neumann (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2006), 45-59.
4. Ann Towns and Bahar Rumelili, “Foreign Yet Familiar: International Politics and the Reception of Potter in Turkey and Sweden,” in Harry Potter and International Relations, ed. Daniel H. Nexon and Iver B. Neumann (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2006), 61-77.
5. Hannah Schmid and Christoph Klimmt, “A magically nice guy: Parasocial relationships with Harry Potter across different cultures,” International Communication Gazette, 73, no. 3 (2011): 252-269
6. Earl P. Spencer, “Euro Disney: What Happened? What Next?” Journal of International Marketing, 3, no. 3 (1995): 103-114
7. Scott Smith, “Triwizard Spirit Rally: Beauxbatons Academy,” flickr, uploaded September 10, 2010, http://www.flickr.com/photos/scottrsmith/5041166185/
8. Kurt Groetsch, “Harry Potter mania in Beijing,” flickr, uploaded July 17, 2005, http://www.flickr.com/photos/oldtasty/26488463/

Edgar Pal is a second-year student at the University of Chicago majoring in economics and public policy. He is also the Editor-in-Chief of the University of Chicago chapter of The Triple Helix Online. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter. Join us on Facebook.

The Union for the Mediterranean is an intergovernmental institution which provides a political and institutional framework for Euro- Mediterranean relations, and seeks to increase the potential for regional integration and cohesion between member countries.  The organization was established at the Paris Summit of Heads of State and Government on July 13, 2008.  The General Secretariat was officially installed in Barcelona on March 4, 2010.  The UfM has six focus areas which include De-pollution of the Mediterranean, Maritime and Land Highways, Civil Protection, Alternative Energies: Mediterranean Solar Plan, Higher Education and Research, and the Mediterranean Business Initiative.[1] Membership within the UfM includes twenty seven member countries of the European Union and sixteen Mediterranean partners.[2]

On June 22, 2011, the Union for the Mediterranean declared its first project. This project consists of the construction of a 100 million cubic meter desalination facility and distribution system in the Gaza Strip in order to address the major water deficit for a population of 1.6 million.  This project was partly based on a recommendation from the UfM’s Water Expert Group, and aims to deliver concrete humanitarian and health benefits. Additionally, the project will spur job creation and future economic and sustainable development in the highly populated region.[3]

In the Gaza Strip, 1.6 million Palestinian people rely almost exclusively on the trans- boundary Coastal Aquifer for obtaining fresh water.  While the sustainable yield of the portion of the aquifer under the Gaza Strip is around 45-55 million cubic meters, in 2010, the people living in the Gaza Strip utilized an excess of 170 million cubic meters from the aquifer.  Because of this over-pumping of fresh water and the resulting Mediterranean seawater intrusion into the aquifer creates an increase in groundwater salinity thus, damaging the trans- boundary aquifer.[4]

Salinization is a phenomenon that results from the over-exploitation of scarce water resources.  The Gaza Strip aquifer is the most severe case of salinization as it is the only source of water supply for over a million people.  The Coastal Plain aquifer is located along the Mediterranean coast of Israel and the Gaza Strip, stretches into Egypt and Israel, and is composed of pliocene- pleistocene calcareous sandstone, sands, sandy loam, and clays.  The salinity in the eastern part of the Coastal Plain aquifer comes from the discharge of saline groundwater from the adjacent Avedat aquifer.  As the groundwater flows to the central part of the aquifer, a dramatic change in its composition occurs.  The geochemical data “suggest that dissolution of pedogenic carbonate and gypsum minerals in the overlying leossial sequence generate the calcium rich solution that triggered base exchange reactions and produced sodium and boron rich groundwater.”  The data also shows that most of the salinization process in the Gaza Strip is derived from the lateral flow of the sodium rich saline groundwater, which is superimposed with seawater intrusion and anthropogenic nitrate pollution.  Figure 1-A shows the distribution of chloride concentrations in the southern Mediterranean coastal aquifer and the Gaza Strip.  The arrows indicate the upper limits of drinking water regulations in Israel and the European Union.  Figure 1-B shows the distribution of boron concentrations in the southern Mediterranean aquifer and the Gaza Strip.  The arrows in Figure 1-B indicate the upper limits of drinking water regulations in Israel and the European Union, in addition to the recommended regulations by the World Health Organization (WHO).  As demonstrated by the two figures, the levels of both chloride and boron are higher than safety regulations in the majority of the region.[5]

The Union for the Mediterranean believes that a large- scale desalination plant is an absolute requirement to address the water deficit in the Gaza Strip.  As aforementioned, the desalination plant  will create more jobs in the construction and subsequent operation of the plant.  Additionally, the project will contribute to the political stability of the region through the removal of the water scarcity issue from the many other issues facing the Gaza Strip.  In order to ensure that the project will be successful, the Palestinian Water Authority has already carried out a proper assessment; a feasibility study that was completed in 2003 in addition to a comparative study on possible solutions for the Gaza water crisis, which strongly indicates that desalination is the most attainable option.  The UfM Secretariat believes that the project will receive the necessary funding from a number of donors within and outside the framework of the UfM, and will also work with the Palestinian Authority to raise the $420 million required for the implementation of the project.[6] However, only with future advancements in technology and subsequent interventions to maintain improvements will the Union for the Mediterranean’s efforts be preserved.

References

Rolling Thunder at the 2011 Junior Olympics National Championships last summer, Steve Cuomo back row, right. Courtesy of Steve Cuomo.

On any given Saturday morning, there are countless 5K races going on around the country.  Dan Renahan, a recent college graduate of Long Island University, won one of these 5K races in 16 minutes and 20 seconds on a Saturday in September.  As usual, a local newspaper reporter wrote a short article on the event and how it raised thousands of dollars for charity.1 But what the newspaper reporter missed was exactly what made this day so special: he did not realize that Renahan, who had just won a race raising money for an autism foundation, was autistic himself.

Renahan ran as a member of the Rolling Thunder Special Needs Program team.  Almost every member of the Rolling Thunder team has some disability.  The majority of the disabled team members carry an intellectual disability, like an autism spectrum disorder or Down Syndrome, while others carry physical disabilities.  Other members of the Rolling Thunder team also performed well that Saturday.  Trent Hampton, a runner with visual impairment, finished eleventh, while Steven Cuomo, Jr., a runner with cerebral palsy and autism, finished 17th.  For the race organizers, these results came as a complete surprise.  But for the Rolling Thunder runners, the race was just another race in which they again competed against able-bodied runners and again, in Renahan’s case, beat them all.

Steven Cuomo, the father of Steven Cuomo Jr. and the head coach of the Rolling Thunder Special Needs Program team, has made a routine of achieving such results in road races across the country.  He founded the program for athletes with disabilities 15 years ago.  He said he came up with the idea after a Special Olympics race.  In the weeks leading up to the race, Steven Jr., who had been diagnosed with cerebral palsy and autism years earlier, had been keeping up with his able-bodied brother Jonathan on training runs.  After those runs, the elder Mr. Cuomo was confident that Steven Jr. could keep up with Jonathan in a race.  So to prove to himself and, more importantly, to his son Steven Jr. that he could compete against his brother, he wanted to race them against each other in the Special Olympics meet.  When the elder Mr. Cuomo asked for permission to do so, he was aware that asking an athlete that was disabled undergo the same physical and psychological rigors of competing against an able-bodied competitor was totally against the spirit of the Special Olympics.  Expectedly, the Special Olympics officials, whose goal was to celebrate achievement in athletes who were disabled in a noncompetitive environment, turned the proposal down.

That day, the elder Mr. Cuomo went home asking why a disabled child, who had the physical ability to run alongside able-bodied runners, could not race competitively like any other runner.  The answer to his question was one he knew all along, that the officials at the Special Olympics were just another group of people who chose to see Steven Jr. as a disabled child first, and a runner second.  Days later, the elder Mr. Cuomo formed Rolling Thunder in Long Island, New York, with the mindset that the club would be what he called the “anti-Special Olympics”.  At practices and at races, he vowed never to give his runners special treatment in the way he saw the Special Olympics did.  He would coach the team just like any high school track team and enter his runners not in Special Olympics meets, but in mainstream road races.

Today, little has changed in how Mr. Cuomo runs the practices.  The team practices five days a week and all of the practices are mandatory.  And like any high school team or college team, the team runs two workouts a week.  These workouts include the typical tempo runs and interval sessions.  Mr. Cuomo also keeps track of weekly mileage for his top runners and schedules them for Sunday long runs.  Mr. Cuomo, a former Penn Relays champion and a competitor at the Olympic Trials, wants the coaching he received to be no different than the coaching he is giving to these runners and wheelchair racers.

Parents have certainly taken notice of their child’s achievements.  They especially take notice when they see how the Rolling Thunder program has prepared autistic runners like Joseph Choinski to join their high school cross country and track teams. Additionally, writers from The New York Times2 have taken note of these athletes’ accomplishments.  The program has also received a $20,000 grant from the Autism Speaks Foundation, the world’s largest autism advocacy group, to buy uniforms.3

But most importantly, Mr. Cuomo has gotten the athletes themselves to both believe in themselves and to develop a lifelong love of running.  One of the top runners at Rolling Thunder is Mikey Brannigan.  Just before joining Rolling Thunder as a ten-year-old, Mikey, who has autism and is non-verbal, was doing poorly in school.  He would also get in tantrums and run out of the house and onto the street.  And since he was so fast, even at ten, no one could catch him.  This situation forced Mikey’s parents to decide between forcing Mikey to live at home under constant lockdown or to put him in the care of a group home.  But before they made their decision, Mikey’s parents found out about Rolling Thunder and signed him up for the program.  However, unable to cope with the difficult practices that Mr. Cuomo held almost every day of the week, Mikey had made every excuse to his parents to not go to the mandatory practices.  However, Mikey’s parents had insisted that he go, and after a couple weeks they had noticed that Mikey was enjoying the practices.  Soon after, he had stopped his tantrums and performed better in school.  His improvement was so drastic that Mikey’s parents could not believe they were in the process of picking a group home for their son months earlier.4

Four years later, he has exceeded all expectations and today is one of the top freshman runners in the state.  As an eighth grader, he ran 4 minutes and 28 seconds for 1600 meters, which is just nine meters short of a mile, and 9 minutes and 41 seconds for 3200 meters, which is just short of 2 miles.  In his freshman cross country season this past fall, he ran 16 minutes and 19 seconds in the 5K.5 This past summer, he won the intermediate boys division of the Northeast Region Junior Olympics in the 1500 meters and the 800 meters.6,7

Courtesy Tony Atkin, Wikimedia Commons

Mr. Cuomo, who has seen runners develop for 15 years now, does not bother with the scientific details of why running is such a great outlet for runners like Mikey and the 124 other athletes he coaches.  He thinks that running’s calming effect has something to do with the simplicity of running and how, for autistic runners, it is an activity that uses up the anxious energy that they build up throughout the day.  The running club also provides for these athletes a community.  Mr. Cuomo also says that one of his favorite moments came at the past Junior Olympic National Championships in July.  He saw his athletes joke with each other over dinner, as wheelchair athletes shared stories with autistic runners and runners with cerebral palsy joked around with teammates that were visually impaired.  The story reminded Mr. Cuomo of another key facet of his program, that he does not weigh one disability as more debilitating than another.  He thinks doing so focuses too much on their disability and ignores the special talents that each of his athletes brings to the team.

Rolling Thunder is only growing by the day and so are Mr. Cuomo’s aspirations.  As the chair for athletics for disabled at USA Track and Field, he regularly attends executive meetings at both the USA Track and Field and the US Paralympic Committee headquarters.  At the USA Track and Field meetings this December, Mr. Cuomo lobbied for USA Track and Field to become the national governing body for intellectually disabled track (ID) and field athletes.  This legislation, which will not be put up for a final vote until next year, is very important for ID track and field athletes.  As a national governing body, USA Track and Field will be able put in place a sturdy framework for selecting ID athletes for the US Paralympic team.  Currently, no national governing body exists for ID track and field athletes, so ID athletes wishing to qualify for the team have little guarantee of obtaining a spot on the US Paralympic team.

Additionally, the US Paralympic Committee, which receives millions of dollars each year to develop Paralympians, did not make any mention on how to specifically develop ID track and field athletes for the upcoming Paralympics in London in its 2010 and 2011 performance plans for track and field.  What is more disconcerting is that the US Paralympic Committee wrote these plans after the November 2009 announcement that reopened ID competition at the London 2012 games.8,9 Additionally, Mr. Cuomo has had no help from the US Paralympic Committee in setting up USA Track and Field as a national governing body for ID athletes.  Mr. Cuomo, who started Rolling Thunder as a protest against the Special Olympics, now believes the greatest obstacle for ID athletes is in fact the US Paralympic Committee and its unwillingness to treat ID athletes fairly.

Because the new qualification framework will not be instituted until next December’s vote, after the London games, he has shifted his focus to the 2016 games in Rio.  He is looking to expand the program nationally and wants to start Rolling Thunder chapters in New Jersey and across the country.  He said that once a nationwide framework is in place to train intellectually disabled athletes, top runners like Mikey Brannigan will start appearing much more frequently.  Cuomo tells me all these goals with one fact constantly in his mind – that he will not receive a single dime for his work.  He will work free, just as he has been for almost 15 years.  But what motivates him is the dream that one day the people of the US will be as proud of their intellectually disabled track and field Paralympians as their able-bodied track and field Olympians.  For any Paralympian to achieve the fame of a Michael Johnson or a Carl Lewis may seem hard to fathom, but this is precisely what drives Mr. Cuomo towards his future projects.

References

1. Natick Patch.  “Flutie 5k Raises more than $60000 for Autism”. http://natick.patch.com/articles/flutie-5k-raises-more-than-60000-for-autism (Accessed December 31, 2011).
2. Kilgannon, Corey. “Silent Running.” The New York Times, sec. The Island, June 03, 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/03/nyregion/nyregionspecial2/03colli.html?pagewanted=print (accessed December 28, 2011).
3. Finn, Robin. “Autistic Teenager Runs, Makes Strides.” The New York Times, sec. The Island, November 14, 2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/03/nyregion/nyregionspecial2/03colli.html?pagewanted=print (accessed December 28, 2011).
4. Autism Speaks Foundation, “Expand Rolling Thunder Running Team Promoting Inclusion, Fitness, and Social Skills for Autistic Spectrum Youth and Adults.” Accessed December 28, 2011. http://www.autismspeaks.org/family-services/grants/expand-rolling-thunder-running-team-promoting-inclusion-fitness-and-social-sk?destination=about-us/grant-search/results/taxonomy:11516.
5. Rolling Thunder Special Needs Program. “Mikey Branigan”. Accessed December 28, 2011 http://www.rtsnp.org/Mikey_Brannigan.html.
6. NY Runners.com.  “Mike Branigan”.  Accessed December 28, 2011, http://ny.milesplit.com/athletes/1674760-mike-branigan.
7. Rolling Thunder Special Needs Program. “Mikey Branigan”. Accessed December 28, 2011. http://www.rtsnp.org/Mikey_Brannigan.html.
8. United States Olympic Committee, “US Paralympics Track and Field 2011 Athlete and Sport Program Plan.” Accessed January 1, 2012. http://assets.usoc.org/assets/documents/attached_file/filename/43864/U.S._Paralympics_Track_and_Field_2011_Athlete_and_Sport_Program_Plan.pdf.
9. Desert Challenge Games, “US Paralympics Track and Field 2011 Athlete and Sport Program Plan.” Accessed January 1, 2012. http://www.desertchallengegames.com/uploads/2010_U.S._Paralympics_Track_and_Field_High_Performance_Plan.pdf
10. Atkin, Tony, Running Track, Par. 2006, Image. Wikimedia Commons. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Running_Track,_Par_-_geograph.org.uk_-_143484.jpg

Evan Jin is a second-year student at the University of Chicago majoring in biology. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

Our health is directly related to the health of the environment we live in. The loss of biodiversity leads to ecosystems that are less resilient, more vulnerable to shocks and disturbances, and less able to supply humans with needed environmental services. Ecosystems play a vital role in controlling the emergence and spread of infectious diseases by maintaining equilibrium among different parasites, hosts and vectors.3 An organism that acts as a good host to the parasite is called a competent reservoir host, and it becomes dominant when there is a decline in biodiversity. Incompetent reservoir hosts are found in areas with higher biodiversity, and they produce a dilution effect by deflecting parasites from more competent hosts.4 In other words, preservation of biodiversity can decrease disease transmission worldwide. To demonstrate the importance of species richness to public health, this article will discuss the various ways ecological change has exacerbated the spread of prominent diseases such as Lyme, the West Nile Virus and malaria.

Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne illness in North America and Europe, and one the fastest growing infectious diseases in the United States thanks to suburban expansion and forest fragmentation. These factors increase the prevalence of vectors that carry Lyme disease, such as Ixodidae ticks. The ticks feed on white-footed mice and deer that carry the spirochete bacterium that causes them to become infected with Lyme.1 The disease is then transmitted to humans when an infected tick feeds on a person. Forest fragmentation has likely caused a decline in the number of predators that prey on these mice and deer, such as long-tailed weasels, red foxes, gray foxes, coyotes, and barred owls. This reduction in predators increases the prevalence of mice and the number of ticks feeding on them since the lack of host diversity decreases the dilution effect of the disease.5 Computer modeling can help us determine how rapidly the disease risk will increase when studying patterns of species loss with habitat fragmentation. It has demonstrated that Lyme disease patterns show that lower species richness tends to coincide with higher rates of disease transmission to humans.6 That gives strong evidence that biodiversity is necessary to maintain ecosystem and human health.

Research on the dilution effect has also helped our understanding on the relationship between biodiversity and West Nile Virus (WNV). This virus is untreatable and is transmitted from birds to humans through Culex mosquitoes. One study found that there was a negative correlation between the diversity of non-passerine (non-songbirds) birds and the number of mosquitoes found with WNV. 7 Some anthropogenic factors contributing to the loss of non-passerine biodiversity include deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urbanization. Certain urbanized areas of the United States are inhabited by populations of introduced bird species that are capable of producing high levels of WNV in their bloodstream.8 This clearly suggests that the increased prevalence of WNV among humans may be a result of the change in avian biodiversity, especially the decrease in non-passerine birds, which tend to be poorer hosts to the virus than passerine birds.1, 7

Third, there is also a documented connection between ecosystem alteration and species loss with the risk of contracting malaria. These ecosystem alterations are due to number of factors, such as urban rice cultivation, poorly designed irrigation systems, deforestation of tropical forests, increased travel, and the increase in human population.2, 9 Chivian states that certain species of mosquitoes, like the Anopheles darlingi in the Amazon, “benefit more from these changes than others, and tend to out-compete rival species that are less effective vectors for malaria.”2 Carlson, Byrd and Omlin found that there is a negative correlation between mosquito density and the diversity of its predators; they also found that manmade areas were more likely to contain a higher density of mosquitoes than natural habitats.10 This strongly supports the argument that the destruction of natural habitats has caused a decrease in species diversity and has allowed for the dominance of malaria carrying mosquitoes.

Although biodiversity does not act as a buffer for all diseases, it plays a significant role in mitigating numerous diseases from spreading. It also protects our immune system by providing nutrition and medicine that can help protect us from emerging diseases. Essentially, public health is intrinsically linked to environmental health, and measures to deal with one problem such as disease control must also take into account related issues, such as biological conservation. To aid conservation of biodiversity and respect for the environment, we must stress how vital the environment and species richness is to humans. Discussing the relationship biodiversity has with human health will make it more relevant to a wider range of people and will help increase efforts to protect biodiversity. This connection will also allow a more holistic approach to conserving biodiversity because it allows us to see the larger picture: that humans are not separate from nature and we are all victims of environmental disruption.

References

1. Keesing, Felicia, Lisa K. Belden, Peter Daszak, Andrew Dobson, C. Drew Harvell, Robert Holt, Peter Hudson, Anna Jolles, Kate Jones, Charles Mitchell, Samuel Myers, Tiffany Bogich and Richard Ostfeld. “Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases” Nature 468 (2010): 647–652. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v468/n7324/full/nature09575.html (accessed December 16, 2011).
2. Chivian, Eric. ed. 2002. Biodiversity: Its Importance to Human Health. Boston, MA: Center for Health and the Global Environment, Harvard Medical School.
3. Alves, Romulo, and Ierece Rosa. “Biodiversity, traditional medicine and public health: where do they meet?” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 3(2007):14 http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/3/1/14 (accessed November 21, 2011)
4. Schmidt, Kenneth, and Richard Ostfeld. 2001. Biodiversity and the Dilution Effect in Disease Ecology. Ecology 82, no. 3 (March): 609–19. http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[0609:BATDEI]2.0.CO;2 (accessed November 21, 2011).
5. Otsfeld, Richard. Habitat Fragmentation. Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies. http://www.ecostudies.org/people_sci_ostfeld_habitat_fragmentation.html (accessed December 16, 2011).
6. Ostfeld, Richard, and Kathleen LoGiudice. 2003. Community disassembly, biodiversity loss, and the erosion of an ecosystem service. The Ecological Society of America 84, no. 6 (June): 1421-1427. http://www.ecostudies.org/reprints/Ostfeld_and_LoGiudice_2003_Ecology_84_1421-1427.pdf (accessed December 16, 2011).
7. Meadows, R. Biodiversity May Curb West Nile Virus. Conservation in Practice. 7, no. 1 (2006): 9.
8. First Conservation Medicine. West Nile Virus. Consortium for Conservation Medicine. http://conservationmedicine.org/wnv.htm (accessed November 21, 2011)
9. Van Hoose, Natalie. Global Warming and Malaria. http://plaza.ufl.edu/inkling/mosquito-borne_diseases.html (accessed November 21, 2011)
10. Carlson, John, Brian Byrd, and Francois Omlim. Field assessments in western Kenya link malaria vectors to environmentally disturbed habitats during the dry season. BMC Public Health 4, no.33 (2004). http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=512294 (accessed November 21, 2011).
11. Dom Dada. Biodiversity. flickr. http://www.flickr.com/photos/ogil/2540634421/ (accessed December 28, 2011)

Samah Rizvi is a first-year graduate student studying social service administration at the University of Chicago. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

Endogenous and Exogenous Variables: Tracing Economic History

The basic units of economic theory are the factors of production. Taught in every introductory economics class, they are land, labor and capital. These categories were once thought to be all encompassing.1 Formulated in the seventeenth century, these endogenous variables2 enabled classical economists to argue about everything that they thought they should argue about.  On the other hand, from the very dawn of economics, some things were considered to be well outside the domain of economic analysis. For example, consumer preferences were always taken as a given. They lay outside economic models and were considered exogenous variables.1,2

However, this way of arranging economic thought was not watertight. Foremost among the inconsistencies in this way of thinking was a family of irritating effects that defied conventional modeling, known as increasing returns to scale.1,2

Economists have always been comfortable with the idea of decreasing returns to scale. This idea is simple and ubiquitous in everyday life: everyone knows watering a plant too much will make it die. 1

In contrast with this idea of decreasing returns to scale is increasing returns to scale, which is the phenomenon of decreasing average cost.1,2 It sets in when the same input generates an increasing amount of output on the margin. Adam Smith gives a famous example in the “Wealth of Nations” of a pin factory, in which he implies that the only reason costs fall is because of division of labor. He accompanies this with the cryptic statement ‘…the division of labor is limited by the extent of the market.’ As economic journalist David Warsh notes, ‘It does not make sense to invent a hammer to hammer in a single nail.’1 In our single nail world, there will be no hammer factories, no division of labor in hammer production – a single consumer is the entire market.

However, throughout the nineteenth century, it became clear that increasing returns did not only relate to division of labor and the extent of the market but also had much to do with the output of machines.1

In any industry where the cost of getting one more new customer was negligible, like railroads or telecommunications, increasing returns tore competitive forces to shreds.1 Such industries were soon declared ‘natural monopolies’—markets that would necessarily lead to government intervention to maintain competition.1,2 Natural monopolies were considered by economists to be exceptions to the rule and so were relegated to footnotes, all but forgotten, gradually receding from the eyes of the field, dragging away with them the problem of increasing returns. Growing formalization of the economic method disguised this blind spot in economics, making the issues associated with it obscure and almost impossible to discuss.1

Atoms and Bits

The question of what was causing these increasing returns was left out of academic discourse until 1990, when a thirty-six-year old Chicago economist named Paul Romer published a new mathematical model that sought to reconcile knowledge with increasing returns and growth.1

‘Endogenous Technological Change’ made an interesting claim: ‘…the distinguishing feature… of technology as an input is that it is neither a conventional nor a public good…it is a non-rival… partially excludable good.’ 3

This sentence in an innocuous academic paper tucked away in the corner of a highly technical journal of mathematical economics represented the culmination of years of work by Romer and started a rearrangement of the very fabric of economic theory. It did this by supplementing the definition of public goods and private goods with the concept of rivalry and non-rivalry.1

A rival good is corporeal, meaning that its owner can consume it only once. On the other hand, a non-rival good is non-corporeal and can be consumed over and over again. The difference between rivalry and non-rivalry corresponds to the difference between objects and ideas.1 A steak, which can only be consumed once, is an example of an atom or a rival good. Calculus is a classic example of a bit or an idea. It is non-rival because Newton’s invention and consumption of it does not preclude our consumption of it – we can do so using any blueprint such as a textbook.

Romer melded rivalry with partial excludability and opened up ideas or bits for economic analysis. From intellectual property to trade secrets, from patents to piracy, ‘Endogenous Technological Change’ unlocked a strange new world rife with possibility.1

This paper is a classic. To understand why, we must go back in time to Memorial Day Weekend, 1988, when the foremost economists in the emerging field of growth theory gathered at the Buffalo Hilton Hotel. Here, Romer presented a precursor to ‘Endogenous Technological Change,’ and laid claim to being the first economist to solve the puzzle of economic growth.1

Buffalo, 1988 – The Hilton Hotel

Paul Romer in 2005

Apart from Paul Romer, the meeting included famed scholars such as Gary Becker, Kevin Murphy, Paul Krugman, Dale Jorgenson, and Robert Barro. It was here that Romer presented the findings of what would be published as ‘Endogenous Technological Change.’

Romer’s paper blew away the others, for it was here that intellectual property was first characterized within the context of growth theory, and knowledge was described both as an input and output of production.1 The paper began by asserting that it was the accumulation of knowledge, rather than physical capital, that was economically important.1,3,4 The raw materials used to produce a given good had remained, Romer asserted, more or less the same for a long time. What had changed were the ‘instructions’ that we used to combine them. This is where he introduced the concept of non-rivalry in the context of instructions or knowledge. From the very beginning, he had been attracted to non-rivalry because it could explain Smith’s hypothesis that the division of labor is limited by the extent of the market. Allyn Young had sought only to understand division of labor in terms of specialization, but now, Romer implied, he had isolated the mechanism that related division of labor and market size: the fixed cost of finding a new set of instructions. It was uneconomical to create a new kind of genetic engineering to modify a solitary fish, but the bigger the market, the more copies of the new design could be sold. The cost was fixed, which means it was irrelevant how many times the design was used: its non-rivalry meant that it could be used over and over again at no additional cost.1 Because the market for knowledge was capable of supporting a great number of specialists who could provide input indefinitely to the final product, Romer concluded that knowledge brought increasing returns and was therefore economically crucial.

The Buffalo model showed that opening markets to technology (and thus implicitly to new instructions) did not just improve welfare but the rate of growth itself. However, Romer warned that the economics of making ideas was very different from the economics of making things, because ideas could be copied without cost.1

This led to the second innovation of the model: giving up the elegant convex mathematics of Chicago School perfect competition and using a monopolistic competition assumption instead. The presence of intellectual property meant the existence of trade secrets. It meant product differentiation and price making, and that certain producers could make things that others couldn’t. But remember the most important property of Romer’s concept of knowledge: no secret remains secret for long, even with the protection of law. He wrote, ‘As is quite clear from the experience of video tape recording (a technology developed by firms in the United States, refined by firms in Japan, and used by firms in Korea, technological innovation can be copied and used without the consent of the developer.’ He called these effects spillovers.1

Romer’s analysis of the way knowledge was structured had many implications: the most important of these implications was that apart from the traditional concerns of economic policy, governments would soon have to formulate policies for the creation and dissemination of knowledge. There was a trade-off – a balance would have to be found between providing incentives to inventors to continue generating new ideas (by making intellectual property laws strong), and on the other hand, ensuring that these laws still allowed for flexibility so that spillovers could occur, knowledge could be copied, and new knowledge could be generated.

Those in the room at the Buffalo Hilton in the summer of 1988 knew that the field had been irreversibly changed. What Romer’s paper had done was rework the factors of production and carve economics along new and completely different lines. The familiar idea of scarcity, of land, labor, and capital, was augmented by a new idea of abundance: people, ideas, and things.1

References

1. David Warsh, Knowledge and the Wealth of Nations: A Story of Economic Discovery (New  York:Norton, 2007)
2. Elhanan Helpman, The Mystery of Economic Growth (Boston: Harvard University Press,  2004)
3. Paul Romer, Endogenous Technological Change, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 8, No.5, Part 2 (1990) S71 – S102
4. David Warsh, Meeting of Minds Sharpens Ideas, Boston Globe, May 8 1994, accessed November 7^th, 2011, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1994-05-08/business/9405080169_1_economic-theory-robert-lucas-competition
5. Paul Romer, Increasing Returns and Long-Run Economic Growth, Journal of Political Economy Vol. 4, (1986) 1002-1007
6. Akerman, Scott. “Calculus III,” flickr, taken on Nov 23, 2008, http://www.flickr.com/photos/sterlic/3065227839/
7. Doerrb. “Paul Romer in 2005,” Wikimedia Commons, uploaded on May 19, 2008, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paul_Romer_in_2005.jpg

Akshat Goel is a second-year student at the University of Chicago majoring in Economics and Sociology. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

While the 2,700-page Act addresses many different health-care related issues, the two elements that the Supreme Court will review are the “individual mandate”, which requires Americans who do not purchase a health care policy to pay a fine by January 1, 2014, and the expansion of Medicaid to a greater number of citizens, which states must comply with in order to retain their funding for Medicaid.1,2

The ACA’s individual mandate is currently at the forefront of the debate, though the Medicaid provision has also faced opposition. Conservative activists claim that the mandate is unconstitutional, while the Obama Administration contends that the mandate is supported by the Commerce Clause of the Constitution, which provides that Congress shall have the power to “regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among several States, and with the Indian Tribes”.1,3,4 However, neither argument has been decisively upheld by the lower courts, creating confusion and contention. In the meantime, the individual mandate has become the most unpopular measure of the ACA, with only a 27 percent approval rating among Americans.3

Polls show that Americans are more receptive to the ACA if they do not know that failure to purchase health insurance results in a penalty fee similar to a tax.3 Basically, Americans support Obama’s health care plan so long as they do not have to pay for it. However, the government cannot fund the health care plan without incurring debt and driving the price of insurance up if Americans do not purchase insurance or pay the fine.1

Proponents of the ACA argue that the individual mandate benefits individuals because health insurance companies are required to offer affordable insurance to a greater number of people regardless of their preexisting conditions.1,4 This aspect of the mandate is especially important because people who acquire health insurance after being diagnosed with an illness are forced to pay exorbitantly high premiums they often times cannot afford, forcing them to choose between treatment and financial stability. Moreover, health insurance companies will not experience extreme losses because the premiums purchased by healthy people will offset the cost of premiums purchased by sick people.3

Nevertheless, challengers dispute both arguments, characterizing the mandate as a way for Congress to aggrandize its own power. Essentially, the argument holds that by imposing penalties on the “inactive” Americans who do not purchase health care under the umbrella of the Commerce Clause, Congress expands the Commerce Clause to the point that it can be relied upon for nearly any purpose.1

If the Supreme Court upheld the Act as constitutional, it would break away from the conservative trend set by the Rehnquist Court, which limited Congress’s power under the Commerce Clause in cases like United States v. Lopez, United States v. Morrison, and Eldred v. Ashcroft. A decision in favor of Obama’s health care plan would not only impact policy, once again affirming that the Supreme Court’s powers go beyond mere interpretation of the Constitution, but also signify a change in both its treatment of Commerce Clause cases and the powers of Congress. By awarding Congress more control over commerce, the Supreme Court will elevate federal powers above state powers, outraging conservatives who fear big government and autocracy.

The divisiveness of the health care reform argument has not escaped the lower courts. The Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals rejected the argument that the individual mandate was not constitutional, the Eleventh Circuit took the opposite stance, and the Fourth Circuit dismissed both health reform cases on the grounds that the Anti-Injunction Act, which is a preexisting law that says a tax cannot be challenged until it has been imposed, barred the mandate’s challenge in court until its implementation in 2014.4 Consequently, both proponents and opponents are anxious to see the issue resolved by the Supreme Court, which intends to review the individual mandate in March.

The first and most important question the Court will decide is whether the Anti-Injunction Act prevents the individual mandate from being challenged in court until it takes effect in 2014.4,6 If the Court rules that it cannot, the case will not be decided, leaving the entire bill open to repeal in the event of an administration change as a result of the 2012 election. However, if the Court does not favor this argument, it can use the three remaining questions to broaden its control over the legislative and, to an extent, the executive branches. Those remaining questions include whether the individual mandate is constitutional, whether the rest of the Act can remain in effect even if the individual mandate is unconstitutional, and whether the Act’s expansion of the Medicaid program is constitutional.

The Court’s decision to rule on the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act has already stirred controversy from liberals, conservatives, and ethics-in-government activists. Both Justice Clarence Thomas, who has established relationships with health insurance companies like Pfizer and whose wife is an anti-ACA activist, and Justice Elena Kagan, who acted as Solicitor General in the Obama Administration when the bill was enacted, have been asked to recuse themselves from considering challenges to the ACA.7 However, both Justice Thomas and Justice Kagan maintain that their relationships with the bill will not affect the judicial integrity of their final decisions and have given no indication of recusal.

The fact that neither Justice Thomas nor Justice Kagan has recused complicates predictions about the outcome of the health care debate, mainly because the former represents one of the most conservative seats on the Court and the latter one of the most liberal. If one party had recused and the other had not, the decision could have easily become more politicized, pursuing the agenda of a party rather than determining the constitutionality of the individual mandate or the expansion of Medicaid. Ultimately, if the Supreme Court chooses to dismiss the Anti-Injunction Act argument and answer the three remaining questions, its primary goal will not be to favor one side in this incredibly partisan argument, but determine its own role and power in the establishment and maintenance of policy.

References

1. Amy Howe, The health care grants: In Plain English, SCOTUSblog (Nov. 17, 2011, 1:00 PM), http://www.scotusblog.com/2011/11/the-health-care-grants-in-plain-english/
2. Amy Howe, Health care amici appointed, SCOTUSblog (Nov. 18, 2011, 2:44 PM), http://www.scotusblog.com/2011/11/health-care-amici-appointed/
3. Stolberg, Sheryl. “Insurance Mandate May Be Health Care’s Undoing.” The New York Times. 15 Nov. 2011. The New York Times. 18 Nov. 2011 <http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/16/health/policy/insurance-mandate-may-be-health-bills-undoing.html?_r=1&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss>.
4. Lyle Denniston, Analysis: Health care’s “sleeper issue”, SCOTUSblog (Nov. 22, 2011, 12:04 AM), http://www.scotusblog.com/2011/11/analysis-health-cares-sleeper-issue/
5. “Article 1, Section 8, Clause 3.” The Constitution of the United States of America as amended: unratified amendments, analytical index. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2007.
6. “Court asks 2 lawyers to argue in health care case.” The Associated Press 18 Nov. 2011. 30 Nov. 2011 <http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gbn_EoENqyeQMq-6RKY53mpAeaiw?docId=5a0e5efaa6ee48c789bb3f9bb1657d87>.
7. Oliphant, James. “Scalia and Thomas dine with healthcare law challengers as court takes case – Los Angeles Times.” Featured Articles From The Los Angeles Times. 14 Nov. 2011. 30 Nov. 2011 <http://articles.latimes.com/2011/nov/14/news/la-pn-scalia-thomas-20111114>.
8. kenudigit. “US Supreme Court Court Room.” flickr. 4 Oct. 2010 <http://www.flickr.com/photos/kenudigit/5065652061/>.
9. Doc Searls. “Elena Kagan.” flickr. 12 Sep. 2008 <http://www.flickr.com/photos/docsearls/2853041660/>.

Alida Miranda-Wolff is a second-year English and Law, Letters, and Society double major pursuing a path in law. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

In the recent past, most moral decisions regarding bioethics were left up to the private sector, a trend that has shifted greatly in the last few decades.  This shift has provided the groundwork for the conflict between the private and public desire to hold on to this immense responsibility. “Up until the 1960s and 1970s, practical deliberation about ethical matters tended to be left to centers of cultural authority that operated quite independently of the academy. Religious bodies, the family, the professions, and other intermediate institutions made authoritative pronouncements on ethical issues, and also provided the main social vehicles for inculcating “values” in their constituents” [1]. However, recently, a definite reallocation of ethical responsibilities has taken place. The academic world, after centuries of steering clear of the undisputed division between the personal nature of ethics and the universal makeup of science, began to express an interest in the newly formulated, so-called “science of ethics”. Because of this novel field, the earlier, private ethical regime was challenged in a bioethical debate, and once this conflict reached the eyes of the public sector, it soon unraveled to become the bioethical revolution.

Physicist Thomas S. Kuhn’s basic scientific revolution structure provides a template for today’s bioethical debates. Two opposite regimes, personal and scientific, are equivalent to two opposing political parties. The overall result has been a metamorphosis from a professional, private debate between the two opposing sides to one that has very little to do with the issues at hand, and rather scrambles for public support from the general population. In other words, this debate has transformed from a “largely private to a largely public undertaking” [2]. The implications of this shift have had devastating consequences for both parties, and decisions are made “by an ideology that distorts or denies rather than acknowledges and honors the underlying science and ethical commitments of stakeholders” [2].

In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn states that science simply cannot be practiced without a set of beliefs received from within a specific community which provide for the “educational initiation that prepares and licenses the student for professional practice” [3]. He defines normal science as something that “suppresses fundamental novelties because they are necessarily subversive to its basic components” [3]. The sole purpose of research is to enforce the ideals of a set regime. If these are left unchallenged, however, a dominant scientific way of thinking will never advance past its pre-determined boundaries. Kuhn equates novel ideas that permeate the scientific community to a coup in a political revolution; he states that only if the new ideas are logically incompatible with the ones that make up the status quo can there be progress. Furthermore, Kuhn emphasizes that these various scientific methodologies exert minimal effort in resolving and critically examining their intrinsic differences. Rather, it is the theory that has the greatest support from the scientific community that extinguishes the lesser “party” in this revolution.

A case study that focuses on the so-called ethical legislation surrounding stem-cell research further provides support for this gaping hole in logical and professional decision making. The benefits promised from stem-cell research by the “scientist” side of this bioethical debate “include therapies and cures for all manner of disease and disorder from Alzheimer’s Disease to Zellweger Syndrome”, while the religious (private) ethical sector emphasizes the immoral “devaluation of incipient human life… and lack of federal oversight and regulation of human pluripotent stem cell research from bench to bedside” [4]. These melodramatic exaggerations, often found at the heart of media stories, provide very little empirical support for their outrageous claims and generalizations. Stem cells are neither “magic bullets” that provide a cure-all for every disorder nor are they a disgrace to the very concept of humanity; in fact, the majority of the public sector knows very little about the “real” science behind stem cell research. As a whole, “With regard to stem cell biology, many scientists and commentators have tended to promote the angle of ‘us versus them’ in public discussions, and also in scientific  journals, leaving little room for nuanced perspectives on the morality, propriety, and scientific  and prospective therapeutic value of human pluripotent stem cell research” [4].

This disregard for scientific fact and professional, well-reasoned argument leads to the idea that the novel view on bioethics, one that developed less than thirty years ago, and the century-old “private” ethical regime are mutually exclusive. As the “scientific” challenges the classical, there are many questions that still need to be examined. Who should be in charge of the ethics of biology? Scientists? Religious figures? Should these decisions remain a private matter or should nationwide democratic ballot determine the route that this field takes? Although Robert optimistically states “…bioethicists should work in partnership with scientists and publics to craft scientifically well-informed and morally sophisticated debates about forbidding science”, Kuhn’s structure for scientific revolutions deems this infeasible. Although “science is forbidden and constrained all the time, justly and with merit” [4], these constrictions do very little when they are made with the effort to win over the eyes of the public. Only when a single entity has control over the field of bioethics can this ludicrous revolution be complete.

References:

1. Solomon, D. Christian bioethics secular bioethics and the claim to cultural authority. Christian Bioethics. 2005[cited 2010 Oct 26]; 349-359. MEDLINE. EBSCO.

2. Berry RM. Three stages in the lifecycle of bioethics observations on bioethics as co-PI. The American Journal Of Bioethics. 2005 [cited 2010 Oct 20]; 30. MEDLINE. EBSCO.

3. Kuhn T. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 3rd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; 1996.

4. Robert JS. Toward a better bioethics commentary on Forbidding science some beginning reflections. Science And Engineering Ethics. 2009 [cited 2010 Oct 20]; 283-291. MEDLINE. EBSCO.

Tanya Kochengina is a student at Georgia Tech. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter & Join us on Facebook

Academia is not immune to such an impact. College campuses, such as that of the University of Chicago, are often compared to the Hogwarts wizarding school.3 Scholars also treat the Harry Potter series as a cultural phenomenon worthy of serious academic inquiry.4 In fact, a search of the “Harry Potter” phrase in PubMed, a life sciences and biomedical reference database, yields 31 results.

At first glance, it seems unlikely that a scholar would be able to glean any insight into the sciences and medicine through an analysis of fiction. For a discipline that mostly relies on systematic inquiry based on empirical evidence, consulting the fantasy world of J.K. Rowling seems silly. After all, it is likely that Rowling did not intend for her stories to convey medical or psychoanalytical insight. It seems unlikely, then, that scholars can develop practical conclusions from an analysis of her work or that the academic literature on the subject would show them. However, I argue that while some of the academic literature on Harry Potter and its intersection with science does not seem to present pragmatic conclusions, other scholars demonstrate plausible ways in which the series has presented new approaches to science and medicine.

I begin with an example of a scholar who did not conclude his deep, analytical exploration of the fantasy world with a return to reality. In “The Deathly Hallows: Harry Potter and Adolescent Development”, Rosegrant begins with the suggestion that the widespread “devotion” to the series results from the way the readers resonate with the books’ treatment of psychological issues. To analyze these phenomena within the text, Rosegrant dissects the development of the teenage characters within the novels, particularly through a Freudian reading.5 But without a discussion of the article’s implications in the field of psychoanalysis, Rosegrant’s observations remain largely internal to the novels. The lack of empirical evidence to support the premise that devotion to the series correlates with the readers’ resonance with psychological phenomena immediately calls the practicality of the entire article into question. Indeed, by stating that his goal is merely “to better understand the Harry Potter books, and at the same time to explore the books in order to better understand the themes”,5 it becomes less likely that his conclusions can have any implications in more general settings.

Another article, written by Sheftell, Steiner, and Thomas, is similarly grounded in the fictional world, but at least attempts to suggest practical applications of its findings. In “Harry Potter and the Curse of Headache”, the authors review the nature of and classify Harry’s headaches. While the authors were able to diagnose Harry with a “possible migraine”, their conclusion, “That even a young male Wizard has recurrent disabling headache is a reflection of the wider problem of headache in children and adolescents,”6 seems unsubstantiated. Rowling could have easily given Harry frequent migraines for reasons other than wanting to call attention to a medical problem faced in the real world. Although the authors subsequently suggest using Harry Potter as a tool for further research and education, they close their article without an explanation of the unique role that Rowling’s work plays in these fields.

This doesn’t mean that Harry Potter has no practical insights into science or medicine, however. Gabriel and Young showed that people who read Harry Potter, to satisfy a desire to belong to groups, are more likely to associate themselves with wizards. More precisely, they tested the narrative collection-assimilation hypothesis, which posits that reading a narrative causes one to psychologically become part of the community described within the narrative. Moreover, not only do they demonstrate that readers do more that simply immerse themselves into the fantasy world, but they also show that readers acquire a social connection, “the blissful calm that comes from becoming a part of something larger than oneself for a precious, fleeting moment.”7

And indeed, that sense of social connection one gets from this so-called “narrative collection assimilation” seems to manifest itself in Colman Noctor’s psycotherapeutic work with children and adolescents. A clinical nurse manager, Noctor used the Harry Potter series to encourage youth to speak more about themselves during therapy sessions. Not only did the children immerse themselves in the texts, but they also found power in reading the texts in ways that helped them to make sense of the real world. By sympathizing with the sense of hopelessness, lack of parental guidance, and a poor sense of self found throughout the novels, the children found the courage to talk about their fears, thoughts, and aspirations.8

Harry Potter has therefore manifested itself as a unique medium through which humans interact and uplift each other. When scientists perform literary analyses of Harry Potter, they do so not primarily to study the real world as it is right now. Rather, they do so to study how the readers interact with the series and how the series promotes new ways of approaching the world. In the words of Appelbaum, “It is especially important to learn from people how they ‘use’ popular culture resources to make sense of their lives, their culture, and their fear and fantasies, and through such mediation, to construct new modes of meaning.”9

Has Harry Potter caused a change, however small, to the way we think about science and medicine? If anything, Gabriel and Young have shown us that the series calls attention to topics that have not been sufficiently explored by academia. Much of the prevailing research on the psychological need to belong has focused on relational bonds between people. Gabriel and Young feel that an equally robust inquiry into group identity is needed, suggesting that their analysis of readers’ assimilation within the Harry Potter world adds to our understanding of other group identities, such as ethnic affiliation and school loyalty.7

References

1. David Lieberman, “Harry Potter Inc: Warner Bros’ $21B Empire,” Deadline New York, last modified July 13, 2011, http://www.deadline.com/2011/07/harry-potter-inc-warner-bros-21b-empire/
2. Associated Press, “Rowling Looking Into Harry Potter E-Books,” ABC News, last modified April 4, 2011, http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/wireStory?id=13292040
3. Katherine L. Cohen, “Dr. Kat’s List: 5 Campuses if you want the Harry Potter Experience,” ApplyWise, last modified 2008, http://applywise.com/jul09_harry_potter.aspx
4. William Weir, “Harry Potter and the Well of Medical Research,” Chicago Tribune, last modified July 20, 2011, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-07-20/news/ct-x-0720-harry-potter-research-20110720_1_harry-potter-young-wizard-hogwarts
5. John Rosegrant, “The Deathly Hallows: Harry Potter and Adolescent Development,” Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 57, no. 6 (2009): 1401-1423.
6. Fred Sheftell, Timothy J. Steiner, and Hallie Thomas, “Harry Potter and the Curse of Headache,” Headache 47, no. 6 (2007): 911-916.
7. Shira Gabriel and Ariana F. Young, “Becoming a Vampire Without Being Bitten: The Narrative Collective-Assimilation Hypothesis,” Psychological Science 22, no. 8 (2011): 990-994
8. Colman Noctor, “Putting Harry Potter on the Couch,” Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 11, no. 4 (2006): 579-589
9. Peter Appelbaum, “Harry Potter’s World: Magic, Technoculture, and Becoming Human,” in Harry Potter’s World, ed. Elizabeth E. Heilman (New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2003), 25-51
10. woodleywonderworks. “Harry Potter, by latern [sic] light,” flickr, last modified August 16, 2009, http://www.flickr.com/photos/wwworks/3894200418/
11. Skiff, Eric. “Reading on the subway,” flickr, taken on July 20, 2001, http://www.flickr.com/photos/ericskiff/864347555/

Edgar Pal is a second-year student at the University of Chicago majoring in economics and public policy, and is the Editor-in-Chief of the University of Chicago chapter of The Triple Helix Online. He is also the author of Harry Potter: Why Do Muggles Hate Magic?. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter. Join us on Facebook.