The total cost was $83,900 [1]. The number appeared after 344 lines had printed across eight pages of Recchi’s hospital bill. The numerical codes, the strange Latin sounding medications, and all the acronyms seemed extreme for his treatment and initial doses of chemotherapy. As elucidated in a recent article in Time Magazine, author Steven Brill uses Recchi’s case as symptomatic of the larger issues of medical bills and the incentives both hospitals and physicians are lured towards.

The ninety minutes the Recchis had to wait is indicative of the growing gap between hospitals and patients. The hospital, as an institution with limited resources, had to withhold treatment from Sean even though he was in visible pain. But if the hospital prides itself as a symbol of hope for the sick, then why does it have to rely on the bottom line? Why did the check matter so much? Did the institution weigh the risks of people like the Recchis not paying their bills versus the amount of human suffering that could occur? The economic model through which hospitals, insurance companies, and people pay into reveals uncomfortable assumptions of the American healthcare system, and Sean Recchi’s case reveals a microcosm of its financial limitations.

On average, the U.S. spends approximately 2.5 times more on healthcare than most Western developed nations. In 2010, the U.S. spent $8,233 on health per person in contrast to Norway, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, which all spent less than $3000 per person [2]. GDP, the gross domestic product, is the market value of all goods and services within a country. In 2010, the U.S. spent 17.6% of its GDP on healthcare, more than any other Western country [2]. Such a high-rate investment in health services leads to the logical conclusion that the country would have state-of-the-art facilities, comprehensive diagnostic services, and an overall reduction in chronic illnesses and public health tragedies. But looking more closely at the 17 cents per dollar eaten up by this expenditure finds some uncomfortable truths [2].

One such truth is the notion of waste. According to some recent estimates, approximately $750 billion in excess come from a variety of factors including unnecessary testing, high administrative costs, and a lack of proper prevention methods [3]. This health care system has created a network of doctors and providers, each with competing specialists and highly variable payment plans. Moreover, newer legislation and policy will further entangle taxpayers and policymakers. Even with Obamacare, insurance companies and legislators will find loopholes to manipulate. This confusion results in a whole range of unnecessary expenditures that will rise over time.

The issue is further complicated in the framework of basic economics, particularly the notion that we, as rational beings, work in our own self-interest in a world of limited time and resources. This could also apply to large-scale corporations and business. The hospital has limited resources, in that the doctors, medications, staff, and overheads all cost a significant sum. Moreover, these institutions need a viable and sustainable way to survive. But Recchi’s case seems a little extravagant, considering that the hospital had a 26% profit margin in 2010 [4]. The bottom line seemed to have pushed this agent to pursue its best interest and keep Recchi waiting so that the payment could be authorized and all parties be reimbursed.

Such practices portray the American healthcare system as having a dubious relationship with business and profit. Health insurance companies spend millions on lobbying for provisions in health care bills. Recently, America’s Health Insurance Plans, the primary trade group for insurance companies, stepped up its lobbying efforts after the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services proposed a 2.2% reduction in payments. These cuts would affect almost all of the 14 million senior citizens who use the service. As a result, the American Hospital Association has devised an effort to stop this by employing television ads and having a spur of studies that support Medicaid expansion. Thousands of calls have been made, a grassroots effort to convince seniors to call congressmen has been employed, and even a social media campaign using Twitter, Facebook, and television advertisements has been implemented [5].

At the end of the day, the modern doctor is very different from the Hippocratic ideal of Greek mythology. He or she cannot possibly provide equal services to all those who come knocking on his or her door. With increasing insurance costs and issues with compensation, doctors will have to make difficult decisions regarding their care and their patients. Recchi’s case is only symbolic of the constraints that modern medicine has within a system that focuses so much on profit. We can only hope that institutions like MD Anderson can find a better way of working with people like Recchi to alleviate their  pain and not compromise their financial wellbeing at the same time.

References

1. Brill, Steven. “Bitter Pill: Why Medical Bills Are Killing Us,” Time Magazine, March 4, 2013, accessed March 24, 2013, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2136864,00.html
2. “Health Costs: How the U.S. Compares With Other Countries,” last modified October 22, 2012, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2012/10/health-costs-how-the-us-compares-with-other-countries.html
3. “The Cost of Healthcare: How much is waste?,” last modified December 16, 2009. http://resources.iom.edu/widgets/vsrt/healthcare-waste.html
4. “Health Insurance Scams Leave People High and Dry”, last modified March 21, 2013, http://obrag.org/?p=72031
5. Baker, Sam. “Insurers Ready to Battle Medicare Cuts.” Healthwatch, March 6, 2013. http://thehill.com/blogs/healthwatch/medicare/286419-insurers-ready-to-battle-medicare-cuts

Varun Moktan is a junior majoring in English Language and Literature at the George Washington University. He currently helps with research in the Department of Emergency Medicine at the George Washington University Hospital, and will be attending medical school in the fall of 2014. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

But given the fact that even today, well into the 21^st century, these fundamental skills appear to be inaccessible to many people, it seems reasonable and appropriate to take pause and consider the opportunities and capabilities one would be deprived of as one such person. In today’s technologically reliant world, almost all information is compiled and passed along in writing. Therefore, it seems fair to assert that an illiterate individual is essentially “deaf-mute,” capable of neither comprehending nor articulating, to the knowledge and progress of humanity as a whole, and is consequently unable to engage in almost any activity or endeavor that requires some level of educational training and sophistication. It is apparent that literacy is a cornerstone in the foundation of modern education and development, and with the exponentially increasing technological progress and innovation of the modern age, the educational gap between literate and illiterate people becomes perpetually and inevitably wider.

Now imagine a society in which the vast majority of members are scientifically illiterate or, at best, have a very basic education. Broadly speaking, scientific literacy is the ability to comprehend scientific ideas, think critically and analytically, and solve problems – but more on the exact definition and its implications later. For now, let us focus on the global trends, distribution, and levels of scientific literacy. Statistical data on this is not as readily obtainable as data for reading literacy. However, a look at the science scale of the 2009 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) test ranking sheds some light on how students, who constitute a relatively small subset of the total human population, around the world perform in scientific matters. On a scale of 600 possible points, average scores range from 575 to the low 300′s [3, 4]. This ranking does not include even half of the world’s nations.

But from its results and numerical trends, one can make fairly confident predictions about the performance rates of many of the third-world countries that are not represented in the ranking. Moreover, the samples of individuals whose performances factored into these results are mainly composed of young students and adults who are already getting an education. Making a statistical extrapolation from these results to the global human population, raising them to the numerical standards of the reading literacy percentages mentioned earlier, would certainly decrease the scores dramatically. Perhaps the following figure helps to put these somewhat incomplete results into perspective: ScienceDaily reported in 2007 that “approximately 28 percent of American adults currently qualify as scientifically literate” [5]. Even though the American education system is oftentimes lamented, it surely is one of the leading ones on a global scale. Even if other industrialized countries in Europe, along with nations like Russia, China, India, and Australia, rank higher than 28%, that still leaves the majority of the human population with an average scientific literacy that is very likely to be well under that percentage – and in several cases probably even close to zero.

But what exactly is scientific literacy? Let us come back to the generic definition given and extend it. In the book titled National Science Education Standards, the National Academy of Science (NAS) defines it as “the knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts and processes required for personal decision making, participation in civic and cultural affairs, and economic productivity”. Furthermore, “scientific literacy means that a person can ask, find, or determine answers to questions derived from curiosity about everyday experiences” [6]. Evidently, to be scientifically literate asks for far more than the mere memorization of scientific facts, equations, and concepts. It seems to be a way of thinking about and approaching everyday situations that is driven by a sense of curiosity, critical thinking, analysis, and inquiry.

From this definition, one can derive the consequences of what it means to be scientifically illiterate in current times – which, as it seems, is the case for the vast majority of the world’s population. Professor John Miller from Michigan State University points out several benefits of having a scientifically literate population: “a more sophisticated workforce; [...] more scientifically literate consumers, especially when it comes to purchasing electronics; and [...] a scientifically literate electorate who can help shape public policy.” He also confirms the notion that “no major industrial nation in the world today has a sufficient number of scientifically literate adults” [5]. However, a nation’s possession of an informed citizenry appears to be of paramount importance in order to successfully grapple with many of the social, economic, political, and technological challenges that lie ahead of us in the 21^st century. It is furthermore truly unfortunate that the educational and developmental disparities between first-world and third-world countries are very likely to continue to increase in the future, just as they have since the industrial revolution.

Nevertheless, it is possible to conceive that with an increase of scientific literacy in already modernized parts of the world, more foreign aid organizations will spring up across the US and Europe that specialize in the promotion of education and, in particular, scientific literacy in impoverished regions of the world. This might be a crucial step in the establishment of a scientifically literate global human population in the far future. What, then, are some of the ways to increase scientific literacy in relatively sophisticated nations? In many interviews and public appearances, astrophysicist Dr. Neil deGrasse Tyson talks about two key components when discussing scientific literacy: 1) allowing one’s children to explore the world freely in order for the “seeds of curiosity” that humans are innately born with to be sustained and to be able to flourish, and 2) emphasizing the stimulation of that curiosity within the education system, rather than focusing solely on memorizing and reproducing facts. According to Dr. Tyson, being scientifically literate makes the fundamental difference between being ”fact memorizers” and being independently thinking problem-solvers [7].

Evidently, mankind still has a very long way ahead in terms of elevating the educational sophistication to a level at which it can consider itself scientifically literate on a global level. Making sure that this development, however slow and unsteady it may be, actually takes place is undoubtedly of crucial importance to our future, our continued understanding of how our environment and the universe operates in interaction with us, and, perhaps most importantly, our global decisions about how to confront modern-day challenges. The facts, figures, and reasons that are specified in the limited context of this short article are but a few. To put the relevance of scientific literacy in Dr. Tyson’s words: “What are the engines of tomorrow’s economies? What we’ve known since the dawn of the industrial revolution is that innovations in science and technology – and investments in those innovations – enable nations to rise to economic power of which they have never seen before” [8].

References

1. “Education Statistics > Literacy > total population (most recent) by country.”
NationMaster.com. CIA World Factbooks, 28 Mar 2011. Web. 27 Feb 2012. <http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/edu_lit_tot_pop-education-literacy-total-population>.
2. Credaro, Amanda. “ATAXIA IN THE REPUBLIC OF LETTERS?.” Editorial Eye. 27.4 (2004 ): 1-4.
Web. 28 Feb. 2012. <http://warriorlibrarian.com/CURRICULUM/global_literacy.html>.
3. OECD (2010), PISA 2009 Results: Executive Summary.
4. “Education Statistics > Scientific literacy (most recent) by country .” NationMaster.com. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), n.d. Web. 27 Feb 2012. <http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/edu_sci_lit-education-scientific-literacy>.
5. Michigan State University. “Scientific Literacy: How Do Americans Stack Up?.” ScienceDaily, 18 Feb. 2007. Web. 28 Feb. 2012. <http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070218134322.htm>.
6. “Scientific Literacy .” National Science Education Standards. National Academy of Sciences, 1996. Web. 28 Feb 2012. <http://literacynet.org/science/scientificliteracy.html>.
7. Neil deGrasse Tyson. Stephen Colbert Interviews Neil deGrasse Tyson at Montclair Kimberley Academy – 2010-Jan-29. 2011. Photograph. haydenplanetarium.org / youtube.com, Montclair Kimberly Academy, NJ. Web. 28 Feb 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXh9RQCvxmg>.
8. Neil deGrasse Tyson. Neil DeGrasse Tyson on science literacy – World Science Festival . 2010. Photograph. 2010 World Science Festival, New York. Web. 28 Feb 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PGNxgm3tdG0>.
9. Emmett Duffy. The pride of Finland, the shame of America. 2007. Photograph. The Natural PatriotWeb. 28 Feb 2012. <http://naturalpatriot.org/2007/12/01/the-pride-of-finland-the-shame-of-america/>.

Nima Ahmady-Moghaddam is a Senior at The George Washington University majoring in Psychology and Pre-Med. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

In order to understand the role of Saudi women one must first understand the historical context involved in this complex issue. Pre-Islamic society established many of the patriarchal aspects still present within Saudi Society. The introduction of Islam challenged traditional gender roles and the role of women in society. According to Nora Pharaon, a renowned Middle East expert, there is “no doubt there is a general thrust toward equality of the sexes in the Qu’ran…it advocates equal rights for women. The Qu’ran does not only create a belief about rights of women but clearly declares that they are equal to men in matters of rights.”2 For example, the Prophet Mohammed’s first wife, Khadijah, “was a wealthy widow who, before her marriage to Muhammad, employed him to oversee her caravan, which traded between Mecca and Syria. She proposed to and married him when she was forty and he twenty-five.”3 In a society that places such a high emphasis on Islamic teachings and customs, why is there such a disconnect between influential women within its own history and the current status of women?

One of the idiosyncrasies many westerners find fascinating about Saudi society is the inability for women to drive. In a conversation the author, Dr. Mody Alkhalaf, attaché for cultural and social affairs at the Saudi Cultural Mission under the Saudi Embassy in Washington, D.C., shed light on the true concerns of women within the Kingdom. Dr. Mody, one of the first Saudi women to embark on the movement for change, expressed that women were more concerned with representing themselves in court than they were with driving. Therefore, many Western preconceived notions of “concerns of women,” such as the type of clothing women are required to wear outside the house, are actually trivial concerns for them. According to Dr. Mody, “progress is not impossible, but it must come from within Saudi society. Effective change will not happen because the outside world demands it, but only if change comes from within Saudi Arabia.” Western-centric views on how Saudi Arabia treats its citizens must therefore take an advisory role.4

On a study visit to the Kingdom, sponsored by the National Council on US-Arab Relations and the Saudi Arabia Ministry of Higher Education, the author, along with fellow American student delegates, was able to visit to Dar Al-Hekma, House of Wisdom, College for girls, and meet not only with faculty but also students that gave positive view of the future role of Saudi women. The author was very impressed with the enthusiasm of these girls and the things they have done for their community. The chair of the newly formed graphic design program at Dar Al-Hekma spoke to us about the role of Saudi women within the larger society, saying “[We] Saudi women have to trust ourselves and push the boundaries. Women must respect who they are and where they come from in order to move forward.”5 She pointed to a graduate of the Dar Al-Hekma institute who created the first fashion and design magazine in Saudi Arabia. She relates that “some of their clients have come to me giving praise, and even said that my girls were undercharging them for their services.”5 She went on to state that this was not because of any form of sexism, but rather, the women did not realize the extent to which their services were demanded. This provides a very optimistic outlook as to the status of women in Saudi Society: the goods and services provided by women entering the private sector are in high demand, even if the women themselves don’t realize this yet.

In one such example, the Nafisa Shams Academy for Arts & Crafts in the port city of Jeddah specializes in empowering women by giving them a job making artistic creations ranging from prayer beads, prayer mats, soaps and dolls in traditional Saudi dress. The academy first trains these women, and then provides them with the materials they need to create beautiful works of art. These women can work in the center, or they can collect the materials from the academy and create the pieces at home, effectively carving their own niche in the economy and in the Saudi work force.

According to Thomas Lippman, Saudi Arabia expert and author of Saudi Arabia On The Edge, “statistics about Saudi Arabia are notoriously unreliable. According to the World Bank and United Nations calculations, Saudi Arabia’s per capita income in 2009 was less than half of what it was in 1980.”6 In his book, Lippman interviewed scholar Elenator Doumato, an analyst of Saudi education, about the education of women in the Kingdom. Doumato stated: “fifty-eight percent of all higher education students are women, if teachers’ colleges are included, 79% of PhDs granted in the Kingdom have been awarded to women, and 40% of all physicians with Saudi nationality are women. Yet Saudi Arabia has the lowest percentage of women in the workforce anywhere in the world, and 84% of women who are employed work in the country’s bloated, sex-segregated education system.”6

The Al-Sayeda Khadija Bint Khowailid business center is an extension of the Saudi Chamber of Commerce, and lobbies for the rights of women within Saudi Society. The Center aims to aid women join the work force by lobbying for issues such as increased funding for public transportation. Seeing that women cannot drive in Saudi Arabia, a lack of public transportation limits the hours and availability of women to work outside the home. Although the numbers are not available to us, this rings especially true for women in lower income brackets. The future goal of the Khadija Center is to get Saudi opinion polls about issues relating to women in order to more effectively lobby on behalf of women. In another perspective, Ms. Haya Anani, an employee of the Center, stated that “women don’t want to be equal to men, they just want to play a role in their society”.7 This statement could hold the keys to understanding the future of the women’s movement within Saudi Arabia, resting upon the assumption that there are separate roles for women and men within their society. Haya implied that women were not equal to men in every way; she believes progress in the eyes of the institute would be to more clearly define and solidify the rights that they believe women possess. Does that not mean that she wants Saudi women to have “freedom” in the western sense of the word? Is the neo-classical view of feminism enough for the women in Saudi society, or is it exactly what the women in Saudi Arabia need?

The author had the opportunity to discuss the role of women within Saudi Arabia with Mrs. Janet Smith, the wife of U.S. Ambassador James Smith. Mrs. Smith, an American woman with firsthand experience of Saudi laws and social views of women, stated that “in order for Saudi society to progress, society must hold a conversation between the leaders of Islam and the public.”8 This conversation, which will establish what Islamic values are and how one should operate underneath them, will lead to increased awareness of women’s role within the Qu’ran and the Kingdom. In the years to come it will be fascinating to see just how Saudi women adhere to their Islamic identity while simultaneously defining and solidifying their role within their society.

References:

1. “Doors Opening For Saudi Women.” NightlyNews. NBC News: 23 01 2013. Radio. <http://video.msnbc.msn.com/nightly-news/50566556/?ocid=twitter.
2. Pharaon, Nora A. “Saudi Women and the Twenty-First Century.” Sex Roles, vol.51 (2004): 349-66.
3. Ahmed, Leila. “Women and the Rise of Islam.” Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. N.p.: Yale UP, 1993. Print.
4. Alkhalaf, Mody. Personal Interview. 27 December 2012.
5. Dar Al-Hekma. Personal Interview. 03 January 2013.
6. Lippman, Thomas W. “Women: The Coming Breakout.” Saudi Arabia On The Edge (2009): 149-76.
7. Anani, Haya. Personal Interview. 05 January 2013.
8. Smith, Janet. Personal Interview. 30 December 2012.
9. Image Credit (approved for use by photographer): Anonymous. “Graffiti on a school’s wall in Riyadh: “The people want a revolution” in Arabic.
10. Image Credit (personal photo): Kadiata Sy. “National Council on US-Arab Relations student delegates to Saudi Arabia in conversation with US Ambassador James Smith in Riyad.” Last modified 2012.

Kadiata Sy is a junior at Emory University majoring in Political Science and Middle Eastern Studies. Kadiata is a National Council on US-Arab Relations Fellow and recently traveled to Saudi Arabia for a study visit. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

While unknown to the Western world for quite some time, the miracle berry has been utilized since at least the 18th century when a European explorer, Chevalier des Marchais, came across West African tribes eating the berry before they ate their meals.6,7 The berry would cause sour foods, such as palm wine or gruel, to taste sweeter and more flavorful. This miraculous characteristic, however, remained an enigma until the 20th century when the berry started to gain popularity due to a resurfacing of the curiosity in not only its flavor-changing properties, but also its economic potential as a sugar-substitute.

Miracle berries do not act as a sweetener; instead of adding sweetness, they contain a protein that can make certain foods taste sweeter by masking the sour taste. The protein, rather fittingly called “miraculin,” binds to the sweet receptors on the tongue, but does not activate them at neutral pH, from about 6.5 and 7.4.1 Miraculin only activates the sweetness receptors in acidic conditions,  so when pH levels are between 4.8 and 6.5 the protein exhibits its characteristics dramatically.5 Interestingly, miraculin can also repress the sweetness receptors on the tongue; the sweet taste of the artificial sweetener aspartame in neutral pH conditions is muted by miraculin,1 but in slightly acidic conditions the effects of the sweetener magnify significantly.5 Miraculin binds strongly to the sweet taste receptors so it has the ability to activate and deactivate the receptors multiple times to prolong the effect for about an hour.5 However, be warned that foods only taste differently, and the acidic properties of sour foods are still there despite the seeming sweetness.

Although much progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms behind the miracle berry’s curious traits, there remain some barriers to mass-producing a miracle “sweetener”. In the 1960s, a biomedical postgraduate student, Robert Harvey, came across the berry and immediately saw an opportunity: since the berry contained almost no calories, and it did not leave an aftertaste, it would be the perfect product for combating obesity and diabetes.3 Harvey established the Miralin Company to grow the berries, and extract the miraculin in laboratories. In blind taste tests, products enhanced with miraculin beat out competitors that used other sweeteners.

The night before the company’s official launch in 1974, the FDA turned against the product and labeled it as an “additive”, which meant it would have to undergo several additional years of testing. The poor economic conditions of the time meant that the Miralin Company could not stay afloat, and soon after, the company declared bankruptcy.3 Before the FDA decision, Harvey claimed he was followed home, and that the same car drove by the company’s offices while taking photographs. In one instance, the main FDA file was found lying open on the floor after the company’s office had been ransacked.  The Sugar Association, FDA, and Calorie Control Council did not respond to questions. According to Harvey, the files released from a Freedom of Information Act request were, “the most redacted information I’ve ever seen from FOI. Everything was blacked out.”3

Despite this setback, the miracle berry industry has persisted. Without the ability to mass produce the protein and sell it, the products available are expensive when compared to sugar; one berry can cost over two dollars, compared to a five pound bag of sugar which sells for around three. Recent research suggests a possible alternative: by giving other plants the miraculin-producing gene, it may be possible to mass-produce miracle fruit, Studies have shown that tomatoes could be used as a transgenic plant for producing miraculin, with such transgenic, miraculin-containing plants could be processed, purified, and sold as a powder to be used in place of sugar.4

Although demand for the miracle berry is still low, it is rapidly gaining popularity.  Around the country, people host “flavor tripping” parties in which a small entry fee is charged, the partygoer receives a miracle berry or a miracle berry tablet, various sour foods like vinegar, mustard, beer, or chesses are consumed. 2 In Chicago, Homaro Cantu, a chef popularized by his innovative take on food and willingness to embrace science in the kitchen, has opened a restaurant called iNG, an abbreviation for “imagining New Gastronomy,” which serves dishes that utilize the miracle berry.8 Additionally, his book “The Miracle Berry Diet Cookbook” offers numerous sugarless recipes utilizing the taste-altering phenomenon of miraculin.

Furthermore, the potential health applications of the berry are many. It can be used to eliminate sugar in diets, thus reducing rates of obesity and type two diabetes. Cancer patients who lose their appetite due to chemotherapy could consume the berry and once again enjoy food. Chef Cantu looks at an even bigger picture: for a week, he survived on nothing but the miracle berry, and whatever weeds, leaves, and grass he found in his backyard. “Much nutritious, wild vegetation is mowed under or tossed into the garbage because humans do not find it palatable,” according to chef Cantu.8 The berry might allow people to find new sources of food, and in doing so, pave the way for healthier diets and reduced world hunger.

Recent advancements have sparked a hope for resurgence in the miracle berry industry. One company, “mberry,” produces and sells miracle berries and tablets made from the berries.7 While the product is currently not cheap, greater research and popularization could result in a breakthrough that reduces its price. Unfortunately, bureaucratization and the lobbying power of the sugar industry hinder the progression towards mass production of the berry and its biochemical derivatives; however, increased awareness of the berry could result in greater public demand. This berry has the potential to have a huge, beneficial impact on society in a way that is nothing short of a miracle.

References:

1. Brown, Mark. “Miracle Berry’s Sour-Sweet Mystery Cracked.” Wired. Last modified September 27, 2011. Accessed March 5, 2013. http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/09/sweet-sour-berry/.
2. Farrell, Patrick, and Kassie Bracken. “A Tiny Fruit That Tricks the Tongue.” New York Times. Last modified May 28, 2008. Accessed March 5, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/28/dining/28flavor.html?_r=0.
3. Fowler, Adam. “The Miracle Berry.” BBC News. Last modified April 28, 2008. Accessed March 5, 2013. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7367548.stm.
4. Hiwasa-Tanase, Kyoko, Tadayoshi Hirai, Kazuhisa Kato, Narendra Duhita, and Hiroshi Ezura. “From Miracle Fruit to Transgenic Tomato: Mass Production of the Taste-Modifying Protein Miraculin in Transgenic Plants.” Springer. Last modified December 8, 2011. Accessed March 5, 2013. http://link.springer.com.proxy.library.emory.edu/article/10.1007/s00299-011-1197-5/fulltext.html.
5. Koizumi, Ayako, Asami Tsuchiya, Ken-ichiro Nakajima, Keisuke Ito, Tohru Terada, Akiko Shimizu-Ibuka, Loïc Briand, Tomiko Asakura, Takumi Misaka, and Keiko Abe. “Human Sweet Taste Receptor Mediates Acid-Induced Sweetness of Miraculin.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. Last modified August 30, 2011. Accessed March 5, 2013. http://www.pnas.org/content/108/40/16819.full.pdf+html?sid=b206f91f-df90-4dbd-a111-541b4da556d0.
6. Mayhew, Lance J. “Do You Believe in Magic?” Imbibe. Last modified February 2008. Accessed March 5, 2013. http://www.imbibemagazine.com/Miracle-Fruit.
7. Mberry. “Miracle Berry History.” mberry. Last modified 2012. Accessed March 5, 2013. http://mberry.us/miracle/history.
8. Weiner, Debra. “Chef Hopes Miracle Berry Becomes the Sweet Taste of the City and Worlds Beyond.” New York Times. Last modified February 10, 2011. Accessed March 5, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/11/us/11cncberry.html?_r=0.

Photo Credit: Hamale Lyman. “Photo of Miracle Berry.” Wikimedia Commons. Last modified October 2010.
Photo Credit: scott.zona. “Synsepalum Dulcificum Fruits.” Wikimedia Commons. Last modified January 2012.

Matthew Janigian is a first year student at Emory University majoring in Economics and Philosophy.  Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

To discuss chaos theory proper, there are four terms intrinsically linked with chaos that must be defined in order to be incorporated into new scientific fields: “system,” “non-linear,” “deterministic,” and “dynamical.”2 A system is simply an assemblage of interacting parts, such as the weather or the stock market. A linear system is one in which a small set of inputs can be used to predict any possible outputs; in contrast, a non-linear system is much more difficult to predict, as they respond more violently and unpredictably to initial stimuli than linear ones. In a deterministic system, the smallest differences in initial conditions will make major changes in its future outcomes, as is the case in the well-known “butterfly effect”: a flap of a butterfly’s wings in China has the potential to cause a hurricane in North America.4 And finally, a dynamical system can change and evolve over time.

Today’s medical field appears to be completely dependent on scalar models. Doctors limit themselves by placing their patients into vague categories.1 While undoubtedly useful to sort patients into treatable sets, groupings result in expanded usage of averages, means, and approximations, which are not always helpful in treating specific cases.1 Even prescriptions are determined through generalized ranges and sometimes patients are treated using qualities such as ethnicity and age, but not necessarily through what is appropriate specifically for each individual.1 Such inefficiency exists in the world of medicine because the human body is a chaotic system.4

Practically everything about an individual’s body is chaotic. One of the clearest examples of this is the beating of the heart.1 Within a single cardiac cycle the heart experiences seemingly chaotic or random electrical activity; interestingly enough, scientists found that a group of subjects with congestive heart failure actually experienced periods of time where there was no chaos in their heartbeat.3 Judging from these results, it appears that a lack of chaos in the body is a cause for concern. An absence of chaos can also be a sign of aging, as our bodies and the systems within them lose their chaotic characteristics as we grow older. Our hearts beat more regularly, our thermoregulation becomes less varied, and our brains experience a lack of erratic electrical activity.1 The presence of chaos in the human body allows it to rebound from a variety of potential problems; instead of striving to remain at stable conditions, a youthful body can use this sort of inner chaos to regulate to “near-normal behavior.”4 Examining the elements of chaos within the body becomes the tipping point in our understanding of individualized medicine.

The most significant contribution that chaos theory could make in the field of medicine would have to do with the creation of chaotic models that would be able to predict progression of aging or diseases within the body. The true beauty of such systems lies in how simple mathematical equations can lead to complete chaos. Scientists have already started down this path in several fields, such as with the creation of non-linear equations that could be used to predict the progression of heart failure.3 Applying chaotic models to other systems of the body such as the immune system could help us in understanding how it ages.

When using chaotic equations, one could use either iterative or continuous models.5 One of the better-known examples of an iterative, or repeating, chaotic model also happens to be extremely simple to understand: the logistic equation. Logistic equations are typically used as one-dimensional systems for modeling changes in biological populations. The iterative nature of the logistic equations allows the model to be observed over specific time intervals, and could be used to predict changes in populations within the body, like the amount of white blood cells in the blood stream or the concentration of bacteria within a certain organ.2

While the logistic equation would be perfect for iterative models in the body, differential equations would suit continuous chaotic models such as the Lorenz attractor.5 Lorenz found that his system always followed the same general pattern, but never actually repeated.  Unlike the logistic model, the differential model has chaos solely in its attractor, the asymptotic set of values around which all variables in the model avoid. As a result, such chaotic attractors end up having an infinite precision, as they transcend into “fractals,” infinitely repeating dimensions that fall between integers. This accuracy makes differential equations potential candidates for modeling parts of the body such as the nervous system. By measuring the dimensionality of the space occupied by data points, one could monitor the parts of a biological model that change deterministically – not randomly.8 Developing such systems to comprehend the relation between chaos and longevity would equip us with the knowledge of how individuals, and not just general groups, age.

Another application for chaos theory besides models for predicting aging is in the actual dosage of prescription medicines.1 Rather than treating symptoms with medication at a fixed time interval and a fixed dosage, a better understanding of the chaos in our bodies would help us adapt treatment to make it more efficient, whether that be by manipulating the time intervals according to chaotic systems, or changing the dosage itself.1,6 An example of this could be delivering small pulses of proteins at pre-determined times to correct protein production in aging subjects.9

Ultimately, chaotic models must be aggressively researched to identify those that are applicable to the various types of chaos that exist in the human body. The next major step in advancing other sciences is to take a step back into their mathematical roots. This is where the so-called “digital generation” comes into play. Linking the computational powers of computers and the advanced mathematics it allows us to pursue with the vastly researched and developed sciences that exist today will allow us to turn to a new era of complete interdependence between math and science, improving the current knowledge we have today and potentially bettering our current medical system.

References

1. Kumar A, Hegde BM. Chaos theory: impact on and applications in medicine. Nitte University Journal of Heath Science 2012; 2(4)
2. Williams GP Chaos Theory Tamed. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press; 1997.
3. Wagner CD, Persson PB. Chaos in the cardiovascular system: an update. Oxford Journals Cardiovascular Research 1998; 40(2):257 – 264.
4. Dalgleish A, The relevance of non-linear mathematics (chaos theory) to the treatment of cancer, the role of the immune response and the potential for vaccines. Oxford Journals QJM 1999; 92(6):347 – 359.
5. Strogatz SH Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos: With Applications to Physics, Biology, Chemistry, and Engineering. New York, NY: Collins Publishers; 1994.
6. Atkinson C. Linear Systems of Ordinary Differential Equations. [Homepage on the Internet]. 2008 [cited 2012 Nov 4]. Available from: University of Navarra, Web site: http://www.tecnun.es/asignaturas/metmat/Texto/En_web/Sistemas_lineales/Linear_systems_of_ordinary_differential_equations.pdf
7. Montgomery R, A new solution to the three-body problem. Notices of the AMS 2001; 48(5):471 – 481.
8. Skinner JE, Molnar M, Vybiral T, Mitra M. Application of chaos theory to biology and medicine. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science 1992; 27(1):39 – 53.
9. Skinner JE, Low-dimensional chaos in biological systems. Nature Biotechnology 1994; :596 – 600.
10. Lavoix H. Images to illustrate complexity and strategic foresight and warning. [homepage on the Internet]. 2012 [cited 2013 Jan 2]. Available from: http://www.redanalysis.org/2012/03/20/images-to-illustrate-complexity-science-strategic-foresight-and-warning/

Vivek Sriram is a student at The Harker School. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

In 1965, Gordon Moore predicted that processing power should double every eighteen months.1 Traditionally, this rapid growth has been achieved by shrinking distances between transistors and shortening the distance that information needs to pass through.1 However, the miniaturization of processors and transistors will soon reach a physical barrier.2 With this knowledge, researchers have begun searching for new computing systems that take different approaches to achieving greater efficiency. Many possible computing models have been explored, including optical computing, quantum computing, and perhaps most interestingly, biological computing.

Biological computing is an altogether very new and very different approach. Rather than attempting to increase the speed of each individual operation, biological computing uses components of living organisms to perform computing tasks faster through massive parallelism, a technique that uses a large number of elements each performing smaller tasks.1 Many recent advances have demonstrated the potential of biological computing, even though research has only begun. For example, Adamatzi and Selim Aki at Queens University demonstrated the ability of slime molds to determine the most efficient paths across networks, and Swiss researchers have successfully programmed human cells to perform binary operations.3 Currently, the preeminent developments in biological computing have occurred in DNA computing. DNA fragments of varying lengths are placed in a solution along with ATP to power the reaction, and the results are analyzed by determining the length and sequence of the output DNA molecule.4 DNA computing allows for the storage of data in a four letter code – “A,” “T,” “C,” and “G” – which is capable of storing far more data more compactly than the binary digit storage of electronic computers.4 In a brilliant example showcasing the potential of DNA computing to revolutionize man-machine interactions, Ehud Shapiro at the Weizmann Institute harnessed DNA computing to diagnose cancerous activity from within the cell and then release an anti-cancer drug based upon the resulting output.4

Advances in biological computing foreshadow a massive revolution in computing technologies by removing physical limitations, improving parallel processing, increasing energy efficiency, and reducing toxicity.1 First, while traditional computational development has relied upon reducing the sizes of and distances between transistors, techniques that will soon face physical limitations, biological computing rapidly increases speed by using more effective parallel processing, which is able to perform 100 times more operations per second than conventional measures.1 Second, biological computing is more energy efficient, relying on energy stored chemically in ATP instead of conventional energy supplies.1 Third, the use of biological components greatly reduces the price and toxicity of computing components, as most biological components are readily available and non-toxic.1 And lastly, biological computing allows for a completely new approach to problem solving: rather than approaching problems sequentially like traditional computers, biological computing is a unique data structure focused upon parallel operations.4 Revolutionizing the computing industry would have groundbreaking impacts in all fields of science, research, technology, and society since computers are crucial for scientific advancement for all scientific and engineering fields.

The decreased toxicity, increased availability, and greater energy efficiency of biological computers may lead to massive benefits for the environment. Traditional computers are major contributors to our carbon footprint; by 2020, the carbon emissions from data centers and Internet services is expected to increase four-fold, surpassing even the carbon footprint of the aviation industry.5 In addition, the production of traditional computers requires enormous amounts of natural resources. A single silicon chip requires 1.6 kilograms of fossil fuels, 72 grams of chemicals, and 32 kilograms of water to manufacture, which is all together over 700 times the weight of the final product.6 The disposal of traditional computers is further complicated by the heavy metals they contain, especially lead, mercury, and cadmium, which can easily leak into and contaminate the environment.6 By replacing the need for silicon and other inorganic materials with readily available organic materials, biological computing can help reduce resource strain. Furthermore, the decreased toxicity allows for safer production, storage, and disposal than silicon-based computers. Finally, the improved energy efficiency of biological computing can allow for a decrease in global energy consumption, reducing the strain on fossil fuels and decreasing the amount of pollutants released into the environment due to energy production. This could help reduce damage to ecosystems, decrease biodiversity loss due to toxicity, and combat climate change by decreasing energy consumption.

In addition to advancing computing, biological computing also allows for unprecedented advances in medicine and biology by allowing closer integration with living material. Biological data is already used to control the chemicals synthesized by various organisms; the development of organic data processing and memory storage greatly compounds this synergy.1 As demonstrated by the earlier research done by Shapiro on cancer diagnoses and treatment, biological computers could provide a means to treat and diagnose genetically based illnesses from within living organisms.1 For instance, Adamatzky Aki, a leading researcher in DNA computing, has suggested the use of a biological implant to detect and treat breast cancer.3 In addition, biological computing could be used to link silicon-based computing and living organisms. Studies on eels have demonstrated that living things can be linked to robots and controlled, providing the ability for humans to study organisms in unprecedented ways and allowing for advances in interactive prosthetics.1  Biological computing could also allow the introduction of computing in harsher natural environments by mimicking the adaptive strategies of resilient life-forms.3 Overall, these advantages could radically change our ability to garner data for a variety of fields, including biology, animal behavior, and studies in extreme environments. In addition, intimate integration with biological tissue could revolutionize the treatment of cancer and other diseases, transform health care, and pave the way for artificially constructed or controlled organisms that create new opportunities in fields ranging from farming to prosthetics.

References

1. Fulk, Kevin. “Biological computing.” ISRC Future Technology Topic Brief. 2002.
2. Junnarkar, Sandeep. “Tomorrow’s Tech: The Domino Effect.” CNET News. October 24, 2002.
3. Baer Adam. “Why living cells are the future of data processing.” PopSci. November 5, 2012.
4. Tagore, Somnath; Bhattacharya, Saurav;  Islam, Ataul; Islam, Lutful. “DNA Computation: Applications and Perspectives.” Journal of Proteomics & Bioinformatics. June 29, 2010: 234-243.
5. Kanter, James. “The Computer Age and its Carbon Footprint.” New York Times. June 13, 2008.
6. Locklear, Fred. “The Environmental Impact of Computing.” Ars Technica. Nov. 12, 2002.

Brandon Yang is a student at The Harker School. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

From memory and rationality to mood and mental stamina, the mind’s cognitive abilities are constantly being exercised. While the brain was previously considered immutable in its ability to make connections, the newest research highlights the phenomenon of neuroplasticity, the ability of the brain to rewire itself even after reaching maturity.1 With this discovery, the adage “You can’t teach an old dog new tricks” no longer rings true where the brain is concerned. Companies and research facilities have begun to harness the brain’s neuroplastic potential, giving rise to a new superhero figure in society: the brain trainer. The developing field of brain training focuses on improving brain-fitness by using the principles of neuroplasticity, with the goal to forge connections between neurons through repeated sensory practices and responses to specific stimuli.

Misconceptions about neuroplasticity, such as the belief that the adult brain is unalterable, are based on misunderstandings about the critical period, a portion of time when the brain is most plastic. This period consists of three stages: the precritical phase, the critical phase, and the closure of the critical phase.1 In the precritical phase, neuronal circuits begin to form, making connections among the brain’s neurons; this phase occurs at a young age and is not based on identifiable visual experiences. However, the critical phase is triggered by specific visual experiences rather than by a constant environment.1 In the closure phase, the same array of information is processed with a lower degree of plasticity, triggering phenotypic effects such as memory-loss and slower information-intake which are commonly associated with aging.

The societal implications of the potential applications of plasticity research are nearly infinite. The potential of harnessing the brain’s ability to repurpose neurons to serve new functions opens countless new doors for a number of medical possibilities. Some potential possibilities include strengthening core mental abilities, preventing age-induced cognitive decline, improving memory in autistic patients, repairing body functions that are inactive due to brain damage, and explaining medical phenomena such as the phantom limb.2

Harnessing the science of plasticity for general public use, brain trainers are able to mold the brain by developing exercises targeted towards strengthening a certain mental faculty, be it attention span, memory, or quick thinking. Brain trainers, hired by organizations including Lumosity, Cogmed, LearningRX, and Posit Science, seek to raise IQ and overall mental stamina by creating exercises that test speed, accuracy, focus, and memory. 3 With these drills, they aim to repurpose neurons to the weaker faculties of the brain, developing a training regimen tailored to each user’s cognitive needs or deficiencies. The brain training is targeted towards not only those who wish to increase their mental strength, but also those who desire to stop the cognitive decline augmented by aging. Cognitive regression is a result of fewer “active learning” hours and focused activities, therefore creating the association between the adult brain and the development of only a certain amount of mental faculties at a time. These factors contribute to the so-called “downward spiral” of mental regression.4 Brain-trainers battle these symptoms of age by creating opportunities for active learning through computerized games that become progressively harder as the player masters each stage of play.

Advances in neurological research have revealed that along with stimulating the ordinary brain, learning-induced neuroplasticity may be useful in the verbal memory development of Schizophrenic patients as well. Impaired verbal memory and the inability to decode emotional subtext, both characteristics of Schizophrenia, can be remediated through intensive auditory training.5 As the training program progresses, the temporal transitions, which are the distinguishing factors of sound, present in the computer-generated auditory training become less exaggerated so as to provide a challenge to the user as he or she improves. The process exercises the brain to rewire neurons to focused skills such as verbal memory or constantly developing skills such as emotion detection in speech.6

The alarmingly strong presence of ischemic injuries (problems due to blood flow obstruction or nerve damage) has made neurological treatments after stroke or other cerebral ischemia increasingly prevalent.7 While the long-term effects of ischemic and nervous injuries may not be completely eliminated, the capacity to use neurorehabilitation to form physical connections between two previously separated neurons contributes to the rehabilitation of the patient’s mental function after the injury. The neurons’ ability to make these connections increases the efficiency of the neurotransmissions, allowing the brain to regain control of bodily functions that were previously inactive.1

In addition to aiding in mental rehabilitation, research in the field of neuroplasticity may also help patients with physical injuries deal with the pain of the aftermath of an amputation. In one such  phenomenon referred to as phantom limb pain, a person’s mind has the illusion that he or she can feel the pain in an amputated limb,8 occurring when the area of the brain that corresponds to the removed limb remains activated to give the sensation of pain despite the loss of the limb, hence the feeling of a “phantom limb.” Despite its significance in the medical and neurological world, the phantom limb is only one of many medical phenomena explained by the concepts of neuroplasticity. For example, the discovery provides proof of the hearsay associated with visual degradation in humans and other species. According to modern myth, the blind have other heightened senses; as research has proved, this is far more than legend.9 Neurons from the occipital lobe, the most posterior area of the brain customarily used for processing vision, are repurposed to augment the blind person’s auditory capabilities, a tendency that develops naturally over time without the need for brain-training or conditioning.

The discovery of cortical repurposing has given birth to the quickly developing field of brain training. With a world of medical, scientific, and practical possibilities for society, the concept of neuroplasticity has proven to be integral to our new understanding of the brain and a large step towards the resolution of brain damage and abnormalities.

References:

1. Maino, Dominick. “Neuroplasticity: Teaching an Old Brain New Tricks.” Review of Optometry. 2009: 1-6.
2. “Neuroplasticity.” Brightstar Learning. 2012.
3. Han, James. “Motor learning and neuroplasticity in humans.” University College London, Faculty of Science. 2009:1-2.
4. Mahncke et al. “Memory enhancement in healthy older adults using a brain plasticity-based training program: A randomized, controlled study.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2006: 103(33):1.
5. Fisher, Melissa; Holland, Christine; Merzenich, Michael; Vinogradov, Sophia. “Using Neuroplasticity-Based Auditory Training to Improve Verbal Memory in Schizophrenia.” The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2009: 166(7):1-2.
6. Fisher, Melissa; Holland, Christine; Subramaniam, Karuna; Vinogradov, Sophia. “Neuroplasticity-Based Cognitive Training in Schizophrenia: An Interim Report on the Effects 6 Months Later.” Schizophrenia Bulletin, Oxford Journals. 2010; 36(4):1-3.
7. Di Filippo et al. “Plasticity and repair in the post-ischemic brain.” Neuropharmacology. 2008; 55:1.
8. Ramachandran, V.S. & Hirstein, William. “The perception of phantom limb.” Brain. 1998: 121:1-8.
9. “Neuroplasticity.” San Diego State University, Psychology Dept. 2010.

Vasudha Rengarajan is a student at The Harker School. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

“It’s like a waking nightmare. You’re terrified, you’re confused… People were talking about me and laughing at me… I wasn’t supposed to speak, because speaking would spread my evil around. It was extremely painful.”1 Such was the agony that Yale graduate and accomplished author Elyn Saks faced throughout her life. The reason behind her suffering? Schizophrenia, a cause of social exclusion for 51 million people worldwide.

Schizophrenia is a chronic mental disorder characterized by the lack of fully developed cognitive skills, the inability to differentiate between real and imaginary, and unusual responses to emotional or social situations.2 Although public awareness surrounding schizophrenia is gradually increasing, knowledge and empathy for patients of the disease appears to be decreasing. Often, schizophrenics are incorrectly perceived as delusional individuals who prevent societal progress. Their victimization, caused by such social stigma and prevalent misconceptions, is frequently overlooked. In reality, it is extremely rare that schizophrenics possess violent or dangerous qualities.3 Schizophrenics are thus subject to societal exclusion and prejudice, as details about the several facets of the intricate disease are often neglected or unknown to the public.

One important aspect of the disorder is that there are in fact five different subtypes, each characterized by a unique pool of symptoms that the several patients of the disease exhibit.4 The first and most common of these subtypes is known as the paranoid subtype, the chief features of which are auditory hallucinations and delusions. Secondly is the catatonic subtype, which is marked either by immobility or, on the other end of the spectrum, agitated and excited movement in the patients. The third is the disorganized subtype, which hinders effective communication for its victims, and the last two, known as the residual and undifferentiated subtypes, are characterized by the patient either not showcasing the symptoms of schizophrenia or fluctuating between all of the symptoms of the five subtypes, respectively.

This complex disorder also induces great difficulty with openly sharing personal emotions and understanding societal norms and sentiments, schizophrenics are constantly misinterpreted or discriminated against in their respective communities, with many enduring humiliation and prejudice due to their various socially abnormal traits. Schizophrenics have the tendency to amplify their experiences, resulting in overreactions and unnecessarily intense emotions.2 Some schizophrenics can interpret mildly annoying behavior as highly unjust and cruel,which can then trigger hostility and discomfort in their surroundings as a result. Remembering events and speaking rationally or just cohesively is also a great struggle, and professional careers and opportunities are put at great risk if their ability to recall simple concepts or ideas is blocked; for people who have the disorganized subtype of schizophrenia, effective communication is virtually impossible.5 These individuals are incomprehensible due to a lack of proper enunciation or articulation, and they cannot formulate proper syntax and order words into conversational phrases. This incapability to speak fluently prevents them from interacting with their peers and society as a whole, ostracizing them further.

Due to a potential underdevelopment of cognitive senses, some patients of schizophrenia also find it difficult to perform reflexive actions of personal grooming, such as taking a bath or brushing teeth.2 Strange body language, such as contortion of their faces or assuming unusual body positions, can be perceived as disrespectful or rude and prevents them from forming close bonds or friendships with others. This is compounded by a failure to sufficiently understand social norms that causes them to become socially inept; uncomfortable cases can occur when a schizophrenic individual’s emotional responses to a situation fails to match responses considered normal for other individuals, an example being laughing during a somber and serious event such as a funeral.2 In this way, their inability to exhibit “normal” behavior drives misplaced judgments about their personalities, as lack of understanding entails the perception that schizophrenics are not mentally impaired, but inherently bad people.

The level of discrimination and abuse that schizophrenics face is mirrored in their high unemployment rate.7 According to the statistics provided by the John Hopkins Center for Research on Services for Severe Mental Illness, 73 to 90 percent of the two million American schizophrenics are unemployed.8 However, unknown to most, many schizophrenics are in fact capable of working effectively and successfully. For example, those with the paranoid subtype may have the ability to work efficiently and somewhat engage in relationships with others.2 Their unemployment can be mainly ascribed to the significant social stigma attached to schizophrenia, as they are “often victims of discrimination that come from… colleagues [and] institutions.”8 Even in the rare situation that a schizophrenic obtains a competitive or esteemed position, they are often discouraged or unable to maintain it due to the pressure of a judgmental work environment.6

Since those suffering from schizophrenia struggle with finding and maintaining a stable job, the financial burden is placed on their families, who must pay for any medication or assistance that is required for their schizophrenic relative.8 In consequence, schizophrenia naturally puts great strain on familial relations with exasperated parents or guardians. Family members can feel guilty or resentful because they believe they played a key role in the growth of their child’s disorder or face tremendous stress from knowing that they are not the ones who are suffering through the disorder;likewise, the children of schizophrenics are susceptible to feelings of confusion, anger, or embarrassment as they are entrapped by the social stigma surrounding their parents’ condition and excluded from the community.9 The struggles of their parents also inevitably influences their own decisions and self-image, confusing or traumatizing the child further. Sibling rivalries often arise as well, as schizophrenic children understandably receive the most attention from their parents to the envy of the other siblings.9

Unfortunately, physical abuse is another common response of the community to schizophrenia.2 The widespread perception of schizophrenics as aggressive and dangerous causes individuals to “protect” themselves by attacking schizophrenics. Not all schizophrenics are violent; many are actually capable of peaceful living and are not constantly aggressive,3 the best example being those of the residual subtype, which is characterized by a nearly perfectly stable mental state and the lack of hostile or strange behaviors that are present in other forms of the disease.2

While a permanent cure for both positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia has yet to be discovered, research has indicated that a loving upbringing, support, and encouragement from a family can often prevent schizophrenia from developing or becoming more severe.1 Awareness, empathy, and understanding of the struggles of schizophrenics could help bring smiles to both their faces and ours.

References
1. Sachs, Andrea. “A Memoir of Schizophrenia.” Time Magazine. August 27, 2007. http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1656592,00.html
2. “Schizophrenia Facts and Statistics.” The Internet Mental Health Initiative, Schizophrenia.com.
3. Cheung et al. “Violence in schizophrenia: Role of hallucinations and delusions.” Schizophrenia Research. 1997;26(2-3): 181-190.
4. Smith, Melinda & Segal, Jeanne. “Schizophrenia: Signs, Types & Causes.” HelpGuide.org. Last updated November 2012.
5. “Understanding Schizophrenia.” The University of Texas, Harris County Psychiatric Center. Last updated September 2006.
6. Fitzgerald et al.”Victimization of patients with schizophrenia and related disorders.” Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2005 39:169-174.
7. Perkins, Rachel & Rinaldi, Miles. “Unemployment rates among patients with long-term mental health problems.“ The Psychiatrist. 2002; 26: 295-298.
8. “Improving Chances for Employment: Negative Symptom/Positive Symptom Reductions in Schizophrenia.” The Center for Research on Services for Severe Mental Illness, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Last updated Nov. 12, 2002.
9. Veague, Heather Barnett. “Stress on Families – Schizophrenia.” Armenian Medical Network. May 12, 2009.
10. Brooks, Ashley. “The Effects of Schizophrenia on a Family.” eHow.com, Health.
Image Credit: http://www.nih.gov/researchmatters/october2007/10292007flaws.htm”>http://www.nih.gov/researchmatters/october2007/10292007flaws.htm
Image Credit: http://www.yalescientific.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/Schizophrenia_William-Zhang_JZ.png

Modern agricultural methods trace their roots to the Green Revolution—which, ironically, was anything but green in the modern sense of the word. To be fair, the name “Green Revolution” was not intended to describe the movement as an environmental one. Instead, it was mean to be an agricultural foil to the political, Soviet Red Revolution or Iranian White Revolution. In fact, William Gaud, former administrator of USAID, coined the phrase “Green Revolution” in a speech in 1968 when the Soviet and Iranian revolutions would have been fresher in the public’s mind.5

The goal of the Green Revolution was to use technology, largely through genetically modified crop varieties designed to produce greater yield, to meet the rising global demand for food. The philosophy underlying the movement was that by planting a few varieties of modified, high-yielding crops and providing them with the right combination of inputs—water, fertilizers, and pesticides—yields could be maximized in almost any environment. As Frederick Kirschenmann puts it, “In modern, conventional agriculture, progressive farming is largely a matter of following the right prescription… a standard model that anyone with some management cleverness can transplant to any farm operation.”6 In brief, the high-input, low-diversity methods characterizing modern agriculture were borne out of this philosophy.

Assessing the sustainability of current agronomic systems, then, one finds that they can be characterized as being open, or leaky. In other words, the prescription of inputs escapes the system in the form of runoff or greenhouse gases, which are often responsible for much environmental damage. In fact, the Environmental Protection Agency cites that agricultural runoff, including fertilizers and pesticides, is responsible for 70 percent of the pollution in America’s waterways. This approach, then, is both environmentally and economically unsound—it makes little economic sense to lose the money invested in inputs year after year.

The alternative to a leaky system is a closed one, wherein all materials are recycled and reused. However, no farm is completely closed because the goal is to harvest the crop, or output, and then sell it off site. We can design systems that are less leaky and more self-sustaining.7 But creating a sustainable system is much more complex than simply recycling waste products—it necessitates reducing inputs and maximizing the efficiency of those inputs. To do this three management practices are essential: a soil-conservation strategy, crop rotations, and a diversification scheme.8  

Conserving soil and maintaining its health not only ensures that land will continue to be productive for years to come, but also reduces the need for inputs such as water and fertilizers. However, the rate at which conventional farming erodes the soil is one to two orders of magnitude faster than the soil can recuperate.9 The foolproof way to conserve soil is to simply take land out of production; however, this means losing short-term profits for long-term sustainability and, thus, is not always seen as a viable option. Increasingly, farmers have been espousing a no-till method of agriculture, in which they refrain from plowing to prevent soil erosion and increase water retention.10 Additionally, a more modern understanding of soil has given us new reason to consider maintaining soil health to promote diversity within the biologic communities living within the soil. Maintaining diversity within the soil is related to a better crop yield, as some bacteria and fungi within the soil act cooperatively with crops to gather nutrients.

Crop rotations entail planting a succession of different crop varieties in given field, rather than planting the same crops in the same field every year. This practice minimizes the need for certain inputs in several ways. First, because different crop varieties have different nutrient requirements, rotations prevent the soil from being depleted of the same nutrient profile season after season. But rotations also involve allowing fields to lie fallow for a time, giving the soil time to recuperate between crop varieties and potentially replenish these nutrients. As a result, farmers can reduce the need for fertilizer. Second, rotating crops with a variety of root systems, some deep and others more fibrous, prevents the pulverization of the soil and increases its ability to retain water. Additionally, crop rotations can minimize the need for pest and herbicides by interrupting the reproductive cycles of pests and weeds dependent on crops.11

As with any good investment, agricultural risk can be mitigated by a diversified portfolio. Diversity can be added at two levels. One way is to simply plant multiple varieties of crops, such as maize, tomatoes, and potatoes. A second strategy is to maintain genetic diversity within crop varieties, which is the antithesis of Green Revolution and modern agricultural dogma, which espouse using genetically modified—and therefore genetically identical—crop. Cultivating a diverse crop can prevent the total loss of a season’s yield from a chance environmental event or crop failure due to pests. Many genetically modified crops are engineered to produce their own pesticides, theoretically reducing the need to spray pesticides, but the worry that pests will evolve means to subvert this inherent defense prompts farmers to spray pesticides regardless.

Intercropping is a specific method of diversification that involves the planting of multiple crop types in the same space, and unlike crop rotations, at the same time. Not only does this allow certain plants to act cooperatively—some plants fix atmospheric nitrogen, adding fertility to the soil—but intercropping is also a common method of providing soil cover to prevent erosion.12  Many crops, planted in rows, leave long strips of ground bare and susceptible to erosion. Additionally, planting in between rows of crops can increase yield on the same amount of land.

We have many of the tools to begin implementing a more sustainable version of agriculture. First, however, we must weight the benefits of the high-input, low-diversity system given to us by the Green Revolution against the ecological harms and inefficiencies it creates. If we are going to champion productivity, we should champion productivity that is regenerative and lasting. As resources such as freshwater or even fertile soil become scarcer and as the ecological harms caused by open agricultural systems continue, the need to transition to a more sustainable version of agriculture will become increasingly apparent. That is not to say that agriculturalists are not already taking notice and redesigning agronomic systems to include an environmental ethic, but the next great agricultural movement has not yet begun. When it finally comes, the next agricultural revolution will surely be greener than the last.

REFERENCES

On August 2, 1990, one hundred thousand Iraqi troops began the invasion of Kuwait. Iraq’s military action was immediately denounced by all major world powers, as demonstrated by the United Nations Security Council issuance of Resolution 660 to condemn the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and to demand that Iraq immediately withdraw its forces.1 Disregarding this rare convergence of Security Council countries’ interests, Iraq continued its military aggression. It took only a few days for Iraq to overwhelm Kuwaiti defense capabilities, and on August 9, Iraq annexed Kuwait, including the Rumaila oil field and Warbah and Bubiyan islands, to its Basra province.2 Upon the invasion of Kuwait, the international community and most of the Arab world acted swiftly to show the unanimity with which they opposed Iraq’s military actions. Despite these efforts, Iraq refused to withdraw its forces and continued to brutally terrorize the Kuwaiti population. It became clear that further action would be necessary to prevent further military aggression from Iraq.

The United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 678 in late November, which offered Iraq a final opportunity to withdraw its forces from Kuwait.3 Iraq refused to withdraw its forces from Kuwait, however, causing the coalition to launch an offensive assault on January 17 in accordance with Resolution 678 The military response included a one-month aerial war and a brief ground war, which lasted for only a few days and ended with the retreat of Iraqi forces.4 By mid-January, faced with the prospect of inevitable defeat, Iraqi military forces engaged in a scorched-earth policy to destroy Kuwaiti oil resources. Despite these tactics, coalition forces prevailed and on February 26, 1991, Kuwait’s sovereignty was restored.2 Faced with hundreds of burning oil wells and millions of barrels of oil in the Persian Gulf, Kuwait and the international community began the long, expensive process of environmental restoration.

Among political and historical motivations for Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, natural resources played a significant role in sparking the conflict. During the Iran-Iraq War, Iraq stopped drilling in the Rumaila oil fields and had even mined its share of the Rumaila oil field to keep it from the Iranians. Kuwait stepped up its oil production, pumping millions of barrels from the Rumaila field. In 1989, it was producing on average 1.8 million barrels a day, which constituted an excess 700,000 barrels of its OPEC quota.5 Angered by what he regarded as theft of resources and “economic warfare,” Saddam Hussein claimed that Kuwait owed Iraq billions of dollars for oil taken from the Rumaila field and in lost government revenue as a result of depressed oil prices.5 An invasion of Kuwait would serve as punishment for its disregard of quota levels and would send a message to other OPEC countries that overlooked agreed-upon production levels.

Secondly, Saddam Hussein saw great power and wealth in Kuwaiti oil resources. As of 1989, Iraq had 100.0 billion barrels of proven reserves. Kuwait, a fraction the size of Iraq, had comparable proven reserves: 94.5 billion barrels.6 Kuwait’s vast oil wealth was incredibly attractive to Hussein: if he could maintain authority in Kuwait, he would control one fifth of OPEC production as well as one fifth of total world reserves.4 Loss of supply to the global market and rising fear of conflict resulted in a higher price of oil, which in turn increased the incentive for Iraq to appropriate Kuwaiti oil reserves. The economic and political wealth that would follow from annexing Kuwait’s oil resources swayed Iraq’s decision to invade the tiny country.

After Iraq had invaded Kuwait and the international coalition had launched its attack against Hussein’s forces, it looked less and less likely that Iraq would prevail in its occupation of Kuwait. By January, six months after Iraq’s initial invasion of Kuwait and only a short time after international forces became involved,  Saddam Hussein threatened to use oil for self-defense.7 Whereas in previous conflicts, oil had been used as a “weapon” to compel countries to halt military aggression through economic or political coercion, President Hussein employed a scorched earth policy that uniquely relied on the use of oil as a weapon that caused physical harm to civilians and landscape. Beginning on January 23, 1991, Iraq began deliberately dumping huge volumes of crude oil into the Persian Gulf.7 Initially, it was estimated that Iraqi forces dumped almost 400,000 barrels of crude oil into the Gulf.8 By late January, however, the volume of oil in the Persian Gulf reached 1.1 million barrels and covered a 40-mile area, making the oil spill the largest in history. 9

Iraqi military forces combined fire and oil to create a devastating instrument of war. By late February, when the First Gulf War ended and Iraqi forces began to withdraw, 613 of the 944 oil wells operated by the Kuwait Oil Company were ablaze.7 Conservative estimates calculated that 1.2 million barrels of oil burned per day, costing Kuwait billions of dollars in lost exports and emitting thousands of tons of soot, debris, and dangerous chemicals into the atmosphere.10 It took seven months, until November 1991, for the well-control teams to get control of the fires.

The effect of the oil fires’ smoke on the atmosphere was anticipated to be catastrophic. Some scientists predicted massive smoke clouds to cause cooling of the Northern Hemisphere similar to ‘nuclear winter,’ combined with heating of the atmosphere due to CO2 production.11 They assumed dangerous levels of gases such as sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides threatened to poison many Kuwaitis. Fortunately, the oil fires burned more efficiently than expected, and dangerous chemicals were being combusted before they could seep into the people’s lungs.7 While the fumes and soot from the fires and resulting oil lakes caused mild respiratory issues among those breathing in Kuwaiti air, the anticipated global climate effects of the oil fires did not follow.11

Constant water movement in the Persian Gulf meant that Earth’s natural processes helped the environmental recovery process along. In 1991, beached oil was a prominent feature on the Northern Saudi and Southern Kuwaiti coasts; by August 1992, however, there was a significant visual improvement of the coastline.12  Studies conducted in 1998 found the Gulf environment to be fairly healthy. Coral reefs showed minimal damage; and while some sea animals were found to have oil-contaminated flesh, total populations were not significantly disrupted.7 Despite this initial optimism, Dr. Jacqueline Michel, a geochemist, explained that the cleanup process was not conducted thoroughly in all areas affected by the oil spill. As a result, despite the speed of the Persian Gulf’s replenishment cycle, much of the oil penetrated deep into the mud of tidal flats and was trapped in the bay. There, Michel says, “There’s no way to get it out.”13

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and the resulting seven-month war significantly affected the natural environment. Due to Kuwait’s oil wealth and international connections, though, it was able to fund a thorough recovery process. A team was brought in to address the burning oil wells, and within seven months they had brought the massive fires under control. Fortunately, these cleanup efforts and the Earth’s natural processes swept out most of the poisonous gases and oily substances from Kuwait’s land, air, and water resources. Despite the generally positive outcome, it is crucial to understand the important role that natural resources and the environment could play in instigating and fueling conflict in the Gulf region and in other areas with vast natural resource wealth. Iraq’s disregard for international law about conflict and the environment revealed the willingness of leaders to ignore respected conventions of environmental protection. International law and norms against scorched-earth military policies may not be strong enough to dissuade leaders from engaging in ecological warfare in the future. In the Gulf region and wider Middle East, where many countries have vast oil and natural gas resources, the potential for tension to boil over and lead to ecological warfare could have serious ramifications for global climate, political, and economic systems.

References

1. “United Nations Security Council Resolution 660 (Condemning the Invasion of Kuwait by Iraq), S.C. res. 660, 45 U.N. SCOR at 19, U.N. Doc. S/RES/660 (1990),” accessed online at the University of Minnesota Peace Resource Center, October 4, 2012.
2. Crystal, Jill. “Kuwait: Persian Gulf War,” in Persian Gulf States: A Country Study, ed. Helem Chapin Metz (Washington, DC: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1993). Accessed online October 5, 2012.
3. “United Nations Security Council Resolution 678 (Concerning the Implementation of Security Council Resolution 660), S.C. res. 678, 45 U.N. SCOR at 27, U.N. Doc. S/RES/678 (1991),” accessed online at the University of Minnesota Peace Resource Center, October 4, 2012.
4. Yergin, Daniel. The Prize. New York, NY: Free Press, 2009.
5. Hayes, Thomas C. “Confrontation In The Gulf; The Oilfield Lying Below the Iraq-Kuwait Dispute.” New York Times. September 3, 1990. Accessed online October 4, 2012.
6. Stork, Joe and Ann M. Lesch, “Background to Crisis: Why War?” Middle East Report No. 167, November-December 1990. Accessed online October 4, 2012, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3012998 .
7. Hirschmann, Kristine. The Kuwait Oil Fires. New York, NY: Facts On File, Inc., 2005.
8. Apple, R.W.. “War In The Gulf; U.S. Says Iraq Pumps Kuwaiti Oil Into Gulf; Vast Damage Feared From Growing Slick.” New York Times. January 26, 1991. Accessed online October 8, 2012.
9. Joyner, Christopher and James T. Kirkhope. “The Persian Gulf War Oil Spill: Reassessing the Law of Environmental Protection and the Law of Armed Conflict.” Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, Vol. 24, Issue 1 (1992).
10. Sadiq, Muhammad and John Charles McCain. The Gulf War Aftermath: An Environmental Tragedy. New York, NY: Springer, 1993.
11. Richard D. Small, “Environmental impact of fires in Kuwait,” Nature, Vol. 350, March 7, 1991.
12. Readman, J.W. and J. Bartocci, I. Tolosa, S.W. Fowler, B. Oregioni, and M.Y. Abdulraheem.
13. Michel, Dr. Jacqueline. Interview conducted May 4, 2010. “Lessons learned from Gulf War oil spill,” The World, May 4, 2010, accessed online October 5, 2012.
14. Ibrahim, Youssef M. “Iraq Said to Prevail in Oil Dispute With Kuwait and Arab Emirates,” New York Times, July 26, 1990, accessed online October 5, 2012.
15. “Recovery of the Coastal Marine Environment in the Gulf following the 1991 War-Related Oil Spills,” Marine Pollution Bulletin (1996) Vol. 32, No. 6.

Colleen Wood is a junior at Georgetown University. She studies Science, Technology, and International Affairs, with a focus on the intersection between environmental issues and national security. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

In January 2012, the discovery by stem cell biologists Joanne Loring and Oliver Ryder published in Nature resembles the backstory of a sci-fi movie like Jurassic Park. The two main players, the northern white rhino Fatu and the drill monkey Loon, both face extinction in the next couple of decades.1 Loring aspired to obtain stem cells from these endangered species that could be used in the future to preserve their genetic diversity after they die out. The magic behind stem cell technology is the idea that stem cells can be reprogrammed to develop into any tissue in the body (also known as Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells or iPS cells), including gametes, which could be then used in vitro to fertilize an egg and reproduce a new individual. The main impediment to this rather challenging endeavor was obtaining stem cells from sources other than already fertilized embryos. Scientists at University of Kyoto broke the deadlock by discovering that human adult cells could be reprogrammed to return to their embryonic-like state by turning on a special set of genes. As noted in Nature, to Loring’s surprise, these human genes could also be used to reprogram animal cells to IPS, which eventually led to Loring and Ryder’s breakthrough in reprogramming Fatu’s cells and preserving them for the future generations in a so called Frozen Zoo. Fatu and Loon’s story is indeed revealing as to what stem cell technology can achieve and more importantly, what the motivation behind scientists’ research is.

However, unlike Spiderman where one can simply walk out of the movie theater and forget about the incredible mutations and ethical issues that the movie hints at, the issues that current stem cell research brings up cannot be overlooked. Even though technological advances may help save endangered species, the issues of stem cell research make it costly and controversial. Eco organizations and laws like the Endangered Species Act have an immense impact on daily life and the amount of resources put in environment-friendly programs. It is worth assessing the effect of humans on the environment, and whether it is within our powers to alter the course of evolution. After all, species come and go, and any meddling with these natural processes by resurrecting extinct animals in petri dish can be considered an even greater crime than the damage that already has been done by human activity. If one species is brought to life after being wiped out, the populations of other species could become endangered as a result. This could lead to a disturbance in the entire food chain and cause a mass extinction on the scale of that observed when dinosaurs died out in the beginning of the Mesozoic period. In addition, the adversaries to preservation programs point out that the official lists generated are rather ambiguous, as they generally list “large, spectacular, or high profile species”2 and neglect those that are not as “cute”3 and appealing to the general public. For instance, there are 200 endangered species Tasmanian Hydrobiid snails whose saving would hardly receive any attention because snails are considered not as interesting compared to some other species and people would not really care if they go extinct or not.2 The large amount of money raised and spent to save one species could be used more efficiently to prevent twenty others from becoming endangered in first place.3 Being aware of the facts that preserving the habitat and taking the measures to save species cost so much, we are left to decide about the future of stem cell technology that costs even more money and certainly does not guarantee success.

According to Loring, the biggest advantage of stem cell research is that it can be used to preserve the diversity of the animals even after they are eliminated from their natural habitat.1 However, developing technologies that will allow the reproduction of new embryos using these stem cells is also a very costly endeavor. Even in the scientific community, many are skeptical as to whether this stem cell frozen zoo project has any future at all. William Holt, a biologist at the Zoological Society of London and also involved with the project, has been dubious as to how the new discovery would be implemented in practice. He points out that it is not enough to have the cells reprogrammed, but also that the reproductive biology of the endangered species should be studied extensively before attempting any in-vitro reproduction. However, biologists know very little about an endangered species and having less than ten individuals as in the case of Fatu would decrease significantly the chances of success. Having this in mind, and knowing all the costs that come with the possible implementation of this project, we are left to decide how much we want to get involved in determining the future of other species. It is our responsibility to recognize that technology can improve living conditions of many endangered animals, but that it should be done in a way which would not cause a blunt disturbance in ecosystems. In the end, it comes to realizing that it is already too late to change today, but that we can always look for a better tomorrow, for us and for all those animals that carry the lethal sentence “endangered”.

References

1. Ewen Callaway, “Could stem cells rescue an endangered species.” Nature(Sept 4,2011), Accessed Nov 19, 2012, doi:10.1038/news.2011.517.
2. CheckBiotech(2002), “Scientist Bias Helping Cause Mass Extinction,” Accessed Nov 30,2012
3. Jason,”Stem Cells Saving Endangered Species or Wasting Money,”TechNYou, Accessed Nov 19,2012,  http://technyou.edu.au/2010/06/stem-cells-saving-endagered-species-or-wasting-money/.
4. Image credit (Creative Commons): Waschefort,Hein.”White rhino and its young.”. In: Wkimedia Commons. Last modified  August 18,2012 [cited 2012 December 3].

Maria Karapetkova is a junior at Johns Hopkins University majoring in Biomedical Engineering. Endangered species have always been an interest of hers, and she finds it fascinating that biomedical engineering technology cannot find solutions for this major issue. Follow The Triple Helix Online on Twitter and join us on Facebook.

Evolutionists postulate that the diets of our more primitive ancestors were largely based on hard grains, seeds, and other forms of vegetation. As such, early humans were adapted to their lifestyle, sporting larger jaws and more teeth to aid in grinding down tougher vegetation. However, the advent of cooked foods was followed by a reduction in jaw size, and turned wisdom teeth into a redundant structure; those unfortunate enough to be a part of the 85% of human beings who still develop wisdom teeth [1] must contend with smaller jaw bones and superfluous teeth. Thus, wisdom teeth need to be removed, especially if they become impacted and don’t grow out properly.

Or so they say.

Dental literature has long been trending towards less invasive approaches when dealing with wisdom teeth, but one study found that the incidence of dentists recommending tooth extractions has stayed the same [2,3]. So why are third molar extractions still commonplace? Somewhere along the line, there is a disconnect in the information that flows from researchers to practitioners to patients.

The redundancy of third molar extractions can be seen even from older studies. According to researchers at the University of Florida, half of the wisdom teeth that are diagnosed as impacted will end up developing normally, and only 20% of truly impacted teeth may become diseased [4]. Almost 4 million people don’t actually need this surgery, and thousands of people have to suffer complications that are associated with removing wisdom teeth [5,6]. Accordingly, the American Public Health Association “opposes prophylactic removal of third molars, which subjects individuals and society to unnecessary costs, avoidable morbidity, and the risks of permanent injury” [7].

Furthermore, a study conducted by Yonsei University and Ewha Womens University showed that a lack of third molars is linked to condylar fractures, or breaks in the hinge joint of the jaw [14]. This discovery is one among many that establishes how wisdom teeth may not be as vestigial as many claim. And what about increased odds of pathology? Another study by Lysell et al. found that an average dentist considers cyst formation and root reabsorption as significant risks [16]. But in regards to impacted third molars, the prevalence of cyst formation is about 2-4%, and that of root absorption is less than 1% [16]. Thus, there is research that refutes the necessity of third molar extractions.

However, this is in direct conflict with what is being disseminated by dentists. Although more conservative dentists suggest that wisdom teeth do not recommend extracting healthy third molars [8] and some suggest that they can help shoulder the impact of tooth loss [9], most dental practitioners will still support wisdom tooth extraction. This is because wisdom teeth can be blocked by succeeding teeth, and are difficult to clean. Impacted wisdom teeth can also lead to gum infection and extensive tooth decay, and must be removed [10]. Removal may also be advisable to prevent pericoronitis and cysts, which are detrimental to nearby tissue or bone.

Since most dentists recommend it, most people also believe that third molar extractions are mandatory. This view can be seen in personal blogs and forums, where those considering tooth extractions post their inquiries. Responders usually offer words of encouragement and push for extractions, parroting the reasons provided by health professionals [11]. However, there are a handful of respondents who deviate from the norm, and profess to retaining their wisdom teeth with no difficulties [12]. Other uncommon posts include skeptics who post questions such as, “Do wisdom teeth really need to come out, or is my dentist trying to hustle me?” [13].

And so, it is as if the community of researchers, doctors, and patients are sequestered on their own islands with differing viewpoints on the same issue. Thus, information concerning third molar extractions is not necessarily available to everyone. Information from researchers is usually found exclusively in specialized journals, of which the general public does not frequent.

Informational discrepancies may stem from internal shortcomings; inconsistencies within research or in a failure to draw concrete conclusions [17]. For example, the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons (AAOMS) examined statistics and written sources to gain a better perspective on the wisdom tooth debate, but ended up with mixed results [18]. Thus, the stance that AAOMS takes on wisdom tooth removal remains ambiguous. The conflicting conclusions of their paper only serve to demonstrate how information from primary sources can be quite muddled.

Such inconsistencies may only serve to confuse dental practitioners and oral surgeons, hindering their ability to do what is best for patients. This was seen when Almendros-Marques et al. [16] conducted a study to gauge how dental specialists decide when to remove wisdom teeth. Four dental specialists were presented the records of forty patients with impacted but asymptomatic third molars and asked for a diagnosis. Overall, the participants rated that 95% of the third molars should be extracted, and seemed to put special consideration into the patient’s age and third molar impaction type. These factors seemed to feed into concerns that included unpredictable eruption, damage of adjacent teeth, infection, and the crowding out of other teeth. However, all of these concerns are not exactly evidence-based. As previously stated, the aforementioned conditions are often associated with wisdom teeth, but are not very common [6]. These well-intentioned but possibly misguided associations are then passed down to the patients. But what about the not-so-well-intentioned dentists?

Money could be another reason for dentists and oral surgeons to push for extractions. The cost of extracting wisdom teeth depends on the complexity of each case, but extraction of a single tooth can range from $100 to $400 [6]. Thus, money could be a reason for dentists to push for extractions.

Thus, there are disconnects between all levels of the informational flow. With something as simple as better communication, people can come to their own informed conclusions about wisdom teeth, and possibly save themselves from unwarranted expenses, groundless suffering, and adverse health issues. Being in the age of the internet and still not being able to clearly convey ideas to each other shows that there is much room for improvement. With people becoming more and more health conscious, it is imperative to root out misinformation lest the public be forced to deal with the consequences.

1. Robinson RJ, Vasir NS. The great debate: do mandibular third molars affect incisor crowding? A review of the literature. Dental Update 1993; 20(6):242-246.
2. Zadik Y, Levin L. Decision Making of Israeli, East European, and South American Dental School Graduates in Third Molar Surgery: Is There a Difference? J of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 2007; 65:658-662.
3. Guidance on the Extraction of Wisdom Teeth. London: National Institute for Clinical Excellence; 2000.
4. Stanley HR, Alattar M, Collett WK, Stringfellow HR, Spiegel EH. Pathological sequelae of “neglected” impacted third molars. J of Oral Pathology & Medicine 1988; 17:113-117.
5. Huang GJ, Rue TC. Third-molar extractions as a risk factor for temporomandibular disorder. The J of the American Dental Association 2006; 137:1547-1554.
6. Friedman JW, The Prophylactic Extraction of Third Molars: A Public Health Hazard. American Journal of Public Health 2007; 97(9):1554-1559.
7. APHA: Policy Statement Database. [database on the Internet]. 2008 [cited 2012 Apr 17]. Available from: American Public Health Association, Web site: http://www.apha.org/advocacy/policy/policysearch/default.htm?NRMODE=Published&NRNODEGUID=%7b40FCA601-747E-4190-936B-BBB2DB8CDD36%7d&NRORIGINALURL=%2 fadvocacy%2fpolicy%2fpolicysearch%2fdefault.htm%3fid%3d1371&NRCACHEHINT=NoModifyGuest&id=1371&PF=true
8. Carr A. Wisdom teeth removal: When is it necessary? – MayoClinic.com. [homepage on the Internet]. 2011 [cited 2012 Apr 13]. Available from: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/wisdom-teeth-removal/AN01961
9. What good are wisdom teeth, anyway? [homepage on the Internet]. 2007 [cited 2012 Apr 17]. Available from: http://www.teethremoval.com/complications.html
10. Bloom N. Wisdom Teeth @ Norman Bloom’s Dental Practice. [homepage on the Internet]. 2010 [cited 2012 Apr 15]. Available from: http://www.bloomdental.com/services/wisdom.html
11. Hacker S. Wisdom teeth. [homepage on the Internet]. 2005 [cited 2012 Apr 18]. Available from: http://birdhouse.org/blog/2005/03/08/wisdom-teeth/
12. Flap R. [homepage on the Internet]. 2005 [cited 2012 Apr 15]. Available from: http://flapsblog.com/2005/05/07/wisdom-teeth-removal-often-unnecessary/
13. Katala. Do wisdom teeth really need to come out, or is my dentist trying to hustle me? [homepage on the Internet]. 2008 [cited 2012 Apr 18]. Available from: http://ask.metafilter.com/105996/Do- wisdom-teeth-really- need-to-come-out-or-is-my-dentist-trying-to-hustle-me
14. Zhu SJ, Choi BH, Kim HJ, Park WS, Huh JY, Jung JH, Kim BY, Lee SH. Relationship between the presence of unerupted mandibular third molars and fractures of the mandibular condyle. International J of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 2005; 34:382-385.
15. Lysell L, Brehmer K. Judgement on removal of asymptomatic mandibular third molars: influence of the perceived likelihood of pathology. Dentomaxillofacial Radiology 1993; 22:173–177.
16. Almendros-Marques N, Alaejos-Algarra E, Quinteros-Borgarello M, Berini-Aytés L, Gay-Escoda C. Factors influencing the prophylactic removal of asymptomatic impacted lower third molars. International J of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 2008; 37(1):29-35.
17. Mettes DTG, Nienhuijs MMEL, van der Sanden WJM, Verdonschot EH, Plasschaert A. Interventions for treating asymptomatic impacted wisdom teeth in adolescents and adults. The Cochrane Library 2010; 2008(4):1-16.
18. White paper on third molar data. American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons. [serial on the Internet]. 2007 [cited 2012 Apr 15]. Available from: www.aaoms.org/docs/third_molar_white_paper.pdf
19. Weisheitszahn2. [homepage on the Internet]. 2005 [cited 2012 Jun 21]. Available from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Weisheitszahn2.JPG

This is an excerpt of an article that was originally published in The Science in Society Review, a sister publication of The Triple Helix Online. Michelle Tran is a student at University of California, Davis. Contact us to read the original article, and follow us on Facebook.